Biological Psychology Stress In one hour Specification SPECIFICATION

Biological Psychology Stress In one hour

Specification SPECIFICATION

The Adrenal Medulla To release… Adrenaline and Noradrenaline Causes… Causes The Body’s Response to ACUTE Stress Activates Stressor The ANS

The effects of noradrenaline and adrenaline Noradrenaline Acute Stress GLYCOGEN IN THE LIVER IS CONVERTED TO GLUCOSE INCREASED PUPIL SIZE BOOST OF OXYGEN TO BRAIN & MUSCLES SWEAT GLANDS PRODUCE MORE SWEAT ADRENAL MEDULLA RELEASES ADRENALINE BRONCHIAL TUBES IN THE LUNGS DILATE FOR GREATER OXYGEN INTAKE HEART RATE INCREASES SUPPRESSION OF DIGESTION

The Body’s Response to CHRONIC Stress Adrenal Cortex To release… Releases CRF which activates Which acts on… ACTH Pituitary Gland Causes the release of… The Hypothalamus Cortisol (cortisol causes stress effects on the body)

SPECIFICATION

Stress-related illness & the immune system Acute Stress: Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1984) • Natural experiment on the effects of short-term stress on the immune system of medical students. • Measured NK cells which are part of the immune response to target cancer and viruses. • Blood samples taken one month before exams (low stress) and during exam period (high stress). • Found NK cells were significantly reduced during exam period. • Concluded that acute stress reduces the immune system. Can stress enhance the immune system? Evans et al (1994) • Looked at the role of slg. A – an antibody which coats the surface of mouth, lungs and stomach with mucous. • Students gave talks to other students (mild but acute stress); slg. A increased. • Over a longer (exam) period of several weeks slg. A decreased. • So maybe acute stress has ‘up-regulation’ effects on the immune system, while chronic stress causes ‘downregulation’. Chronic Stress: Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (2005) • Tested the effects of interpersonal stress on wound healing. • She found that blister wounds on the arms of married couples healed more slowly after conflicting discussions than supportive. Evaluation • Segestrom and Miller (2004) meta-analysis of 293 studies over 30 years, found: 1. Short-term stress boosts immune system 2. Long-term stress suppresses immune system 3. The longer the stress, the worse the effects • Lazarus (1992) suggests reasons why the relationship between stress and illness is difficult to establish: 1. Health is affected by so many factors 2. Health is generally stable and slow to change 3. It is expensive to carry out long term research.

Stress and Cardiovascular Disease Acute and chronic stress can lead to: High BP CHD Stroke The illnesses above are also linked to other lifestyle factors too, such as smoking, diet etc. Below are reasons why stress has been implicated in the development of these illnesses: Stress activates the SNS leading to an increase in heart rate and BP. An increase in heart rate wears the blood vessels. Stress leads to increased glucose levels which can clump the blood vessels (see image).

Stress and Cardiovascular Disorders - Research Cardiovascular Disorders and Anger Williams (2000) Cardiovascular Disorders and Workplace Stress Russek (1962) The effects of stress on existing conditions Sheps et al (2002) First large-scale of its kind; showed thattostress can be fatal for those Looked Aim: study Toat see heart if anger disease wasinlinked medical heart professionals. disease. with an existing heart condition Procedure: 13000 One participants group were completed designated a 10 -question as(ischemia). high-stress anger (GPs scale. and 0 had Procedure: 173 One men had and heart women were before givenas psychological tests, including anaesthetists). group were attacks designated the low-stress study. (pathologists anda public speaking Findings: 6 years later 256 had dermatologists). a heart attack. test. Those who were highest on the Found: BP were soared dramatically, and inthan half of them thelower section of the left anger Found: scale Heart 2. 5 disease times was moregreatest likely in GPs those (11. 9%) with and ratings. lowest in. Those ventricle (in the began to beat theaparticipants, 44% of moderate onheart) the scale were dermatologists 35% erratically. more (3. 2%). likely. Of to all have coronary event. those with. These erratic heartbeats diedisbenefit within years; only 18% of thetraining. rest. Conclusion: individuals Stress could linked 3 -4 from to heart anger disease. management Conclusion: Psychological stress dramatically increases risk of death.

Stress and Psychiatric Disorders Depression PTSD Diathesis-Stress Model • Brown and Harris (1978) • Women suffering from chronic stress (having more than 3 children under 14 at home) were more likely to suffer from depression. • Working class women are more prone to depression than middle-class due to having to return to work and leave children in care of others. • Vietnam War (1975) • PTSD was ‘discovered’ after the Vietnam war as there was an increase in the incidence of psychiatric symptoms of war veterans. • Rohlf and Bennett (2005) found ‘PITS’ symptoms (a form of PTSD) in those causing trauma to others (e. g. Vets). • Some have suggested that in order to develop a psychiatric disorder you must be born with a genetic vulnerability (diathesis), e. g. The mother develops a virus while the baby is in the womb. • Stress then has an impact on this vulnerability; it can trigger or worsen the course of the disorder.

SPECIFICATION

Life Changes Holmes and Rahe (1967) Rahe et al (1970) As two medical doctors they noticed that while treating patients Used the SRRS to life testevents whether was stressful major often stress preceded an positively correlated with illness. These Rahechanges studiescould 2700 male officers. be. US positive or naval negative. Change the stressor and Holmes and Rahe said itof affected is. They were given a military version the SRRS about the number of life events they health. had over the last six months. Holmes and Rahe developed the SRRS (social An illnessrating scorescale) was calculated (number, readjustment by using 5000 patient type, and severity). records listing 43 positive and negative stressful Found life events. a positive correlation of +. 118. This supports the hypothesis that stress is linked 400 toparticipants illness. then scored how much adjustment would be required by an average person. Marriage was the arbitrary baseline of 50. The higher the adjustment, the higher the score. Scores were then averaged to find an LCU score.

Life Changes Evaluation Research using the SRRS suggests that any life-changing event has the potential to damage health. Lazarus (1990) suggests that major life events are rare in people’s lives and that it is the minor daily hassles which are a more significant source of stress. De. Longis et al (1988) studied 75 married couples, they were given a life events questionnaire and a Hassles and Uplifts Scale. There was no relationship between life events and health. But there was a significant positive correlation between daily hassles and next day illnesses (flu, colds etc). The SRRS ignores that there are individual differences in the significance of the live events (e. g. unexpected death vs. death after a long illness). Most studies in this area of correlational, therefore not causal. The problem with this explanation is that the reports are retrospective and will lack validity.

Daily Hassles The Hassles and Uplifts Scale (HSUP) was developed by De. Longis et al (1982). It focuses on dailyare situations Accumulation effect states that dailymore hassles moreinstead of highlybuild stressful events. stressful than (rare) life events as they uplifeand cause Evaluation stress reactions. Gervais (2005) asked nurses to keep a diary for a month. They recorded The amplification effect states that major life events make hassles, uplifts their own job people more vulnerable to daily hassles. E. g. and Someone performance. It was found that daily Bouteyre et al (2007) investigated going through a divorce (major life event) will become more hassles increase job strain and the relationship between daily stressed by squabbling children decrease (hassles). job performance. Uplifts hassles and mental health of French counteracted hassles though, and students in school-university The same problems as the life change even improved performance. transition. Results showed that 41%data collection research. . . retrospective and correlational of the students suffered depressive data. Flett et al (1995) asked 320 men and symptoms and there was a positive women to hassles rate support(men offeredsee for major correlation between scoresdifferences on the There are gender in daily pets life events and daily hassles. Life events hassles scales and incidenceas of an uplift) as a hassle, women Miller et al (1992) received more support, so hassles might depressive symptoms. require more psychological adjustment.

SPECIFICATION

Workplace Stress Physical Stressors Psychosocial stressors

Workplace Stress AO 1 Marmot et al (1997) proposed the job-strain model – high workload and low job control cause stress. 7372 civil servants in London completed a questionnaire on workload, job control and amount of social support. Also assessed for CHD. Five years later they were reassessed. Found no link between high workload and stress-related illness. However, those in higher grades had lower levels of CHD and lower grades the most. Explained that this was due to social support available to higher grades. Johansson et al (1978) found sawyers in a Swedish saw mill with jobs requiring continuous attention, an unrelenting pace, high responsibility and repetitive tasks had higher illness rates than low risk groups. Pomaki et al (2007) showed role conflict (between work and home)was associated with depressive symptoms and somatic complaints. AO 2 Kivimäki et al (2006) meta-analysis of 14 studies. Looked at rate of heart disease (CHD) in association with workplace stress. 83000 employees from Europe, USA and Japan. Those with high job strain were 50% more likely to develop CHD. Warr (1987) used ‘vitamins’ to explain how workplace can contribute to mental health. Low levels of control, skill use and interpersonal contact lead to poor health. Russek (1962) studied CHD in medical professionals. Heart disease was greatest among high-stress jobs (GPs) and lowest in dermatologists (low-stress). Questionnaires are often used in the area of workplace stress and this is not always a valid measure. Interviews have been found to be more beneficial as the participant can respond more openly than in a questionnaire.

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Personality Factors Type A and Type B Friedman and Rosenman (1959) Wants to do more and more Research: less time. in. Western Collaborative Group Study 3(1960) characteristics: 3000 men aged 39 -59 Competitive and achievement California striving Structured interview about how they responded Impatienttoand time urgent everyday pressures Hostile and Questions wereaggressive asked in a provocative Believed tomanner lead to high blood Hardy Kobasa and Maddi (1977) Research: Some people have high stress but have low illness scores. measured Lifton et al (2006) The hardiness Hardy personality 3 at 5 UShas universities. characteristics: Found those low on hardiness Control theirlikely lives to drop-out. wereover more Committed to the worldled around them High hardiness to greater Challenges are problems to be chance of completing degree. Most(1979) data on Hardy personality Kobasa used 800 US has used self-report business executives and assessed pressure After 8½ years twice as many Type A questionnaires. and raised stress them using the SRRS. 150 had died of cardiovascular problems hormones. This can lead to high stress-low illness scores. Recent efforts have used the Over 12% of Type A had heart CHD. Personal Views This Kobasa proposed that. Survey. the Hardy attacks, only 6% Type B addresses the problems in personality encourages resilience Type A higher BPrelaxed and Type B had is patient, and as the highquestionnaires. stress-low illness other cholesterol, also more likelyless to smoke easy-going; therefore individuals scored onproblems all 3 Ragland Brand (1988) follow up to the There are stillhigh some vulnerable to stress-related characteristics. Western Collaborative Group Study. Found with the reliability of ‘challenge’ illnesses. that 214 (15%) had died of CHD risk components on questionnaires. factors. But no relationship between personality and death. overcome

SPECIFICATION

Stress Management -Psychological Methods. Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) Meichenbaum (1985) believed that you cannot control the cause of stress, but you can control the way you think about stressors. SIT is different from other stress management techniques; it works before the stressor is encountered and ‘inoculates’ the individual to cope better in future. Conceptualisation • The therapist and client establish a relationship. The client is taught about the nature of stress. Evaluation Strengths SIT was found to be better than systematic desensitisation for snake phobias, as SIT reduced a second phobia too. SIT can inoculate against future phobias. Sheehy and Horan (2004) used SIT with students. Four weekly sessions were given for 90 minutes. Found SIT reduced stress and anxiety and increased exam performance; students’ class rank significantly improved in half the participants. Weaknesses Skills acquisition (and rehearsal) Application phase • Coping skills are taught and practised in the clinic. Skills include relaxation, social skills, attention diversion, time management. • Clients apply the skills to different and increasingly stressful situations. Techniques like imagery, modelling and role play used. Client trains others. SIT requires time, effort and motivation. The individual needs to be determined in order to learn the skills required. The skills taught during SIT may be more beneficial than the whole training, e. g. Learning to think more positively.

Stress Management -Psychological Methods. Hardiness Training Kobasa believed that individuals could be taught to be more ‘hardy’ so that they were resilient to the effects of stress. Maddi founded the Hardiness Institute in California to increase self-confidence and give individuals a sense of control. Kobasa and Maddi both suggested the following ways to train hardiness: Evaluation Focusing Strengths • Client taught to recognise physiological Hardiness training was used at Utah signs of stress (muscle tension and Stateincreased Valley college and helped at risk heart rate) and identify source of students stress. to stay in and graduate from college. It has been used effectively with Olympic swimmers to ensure that they are. Reliving committed to the challenge of stressful encounters increased performance levels and to • Client relives stressful encounter and is control aspects of their which helped to analyse own lives response. This tells couldthem impair performance (Fletcher, their current coping style. 2005). Weaknesses It must first address basic habits of Self-improvement personality which are hard to modify. Insights gained from previous stage and It is • not a rapid solution. new techniques to deal with stress are learned. Encouraged to see stressors as challenges to overcome and take control of.

Stress Management -Biological Methods. Most common drug to treat stress and anxiety BZs enhance GABA 40% of neurons in brain respond to GABA BZs also reduce the serotonin activity in the brain as this is the neurotransmitter which causes the arousal; this also reduces anxiety. Slows down the CNS activity GABA is the neurotransmitter responsible for anxiety relief naturally in the body. • BZs slow the CNS • BZs increase GABA • BZs decrease serotonin • =LESS STRESS!

Stress Management -Biological Methods. Elevated cortisol SNS activates Increased heart rate leads to Raised BP Stress Beta Blocker (BB) Reduce activity of noradrenaline and adrenaline (acute stress response) BBs. . . take a. . . CHD and lower immune system Bind to receptors of heart and other areas of the body which are stimulated by arousal. leads to By blocking these receptors it is harder to stimulate them and so the heart will beat slower, causing less BP and lower heart rate

Stress Management -Biological Methods Evaluation Strengths Drugs are effective. By comparing drugs to placebos you can see if the drug has pharmacological or psychological effects. Kahn et al (1986) used 250 participants over 8 weeks. Found that BZs were superior to a placebo. BZs have been found to be better than other antidepressants. Beta blockers are useful in real-life situations where accuracy is more important than stamina (e. g. golf and snooker). Drugs are easy to use. Require little effort compared to psychological methods (e. g. SIT). Limitations BZs are addictive even in low doses. Using BZs results in withdrawal symptoms. Ashton (1997) recommends taking them for no more than 4 weeks. Side-effects of BZs include aggressiveness and cognitive impairment (e. g. the ability to store new knowledge in LTM is reduced). Some studies have linked BBs to diabetes. The effects of drugs last only as long as they are taken; the effectiveness stops when the drugs are stopped. If the problem has not passed then the individual’s problem could return, along with addictive side-effects. A psychological method may be recommended at the same time.