Bilingualism and Multilingualism K T KHADER SOCIOLINUISTICS IUG

Bilingualism and Multilingualism K. T. KHADER SOCIOLINUISTICS IUG- GAZA

The Language of Diversity The language of diversity is an evolving one that requires awareness, understanding and skill much in the same way as other areas of diversity competencies. Language provides a means for communication among and between individuals and groups. Language serves as a vehicle for expressing thoughts and feelings. And when it comes to diversity, language can be a bridge for building relationships, or a tool for creating and maintaining divisions across differences. Having a common language for talking about and across difference is essential for breaking down divisions and working towards achieving understanding and partnership. In developing a common language around diversity it is important that language be affirming and not about creating blame, guilt or pity

Historically our challenge with language as it relates to diversity is that it has often been used as a tool of oppression for the express purpose of establishing and perpetuating systems of dominance and hierarchies between and among groups. As a result, language has in many instances throughout our society’s history, served to advance the status of certain groups while relegating other groups to a status of inferiority. Early examples of the use of language for this purpose includes the designation of Native Americans as “savages” and “primitive” in contrast to European settlers as “civilized”;

”; the use of the term “African slaves” to passively describe an inhumane system of forced bondage that “enslaved” the free people of Africa; diminishing the status of adult women through the active use of the term “girl”; the use of the term “America” to specifically refer to the United States as opposed to the whole Western Hemisphere that makes up America. When used in this manner, language has systematically helped to minimize and vilify certain groups and justify subsequent patterns of exclusion, mistreatment and exploitation.

While our intentions in the use of language when interacting with or referencing groups may not be as illspirited and biased as the examples given above, when we are not conscious of the power of words and labels, our impact can be just as detrimental. For example, when we hear individuals struggle with finding the right terminology for referencing particular groups of people (i. e. African Americans, gay and lesbian, differently abled, etc), they routinely express their frustration by stating that the people from these groups… “can’t make up their minds about what they want to be called” or that they need to “figure out a name once and for all”.

Unfortunately, more often than not, the individuals demanding that these groups “make up their mind” are not members of these groups and are usually in a position of relevant dominant status. While the desire of these individuals to achieve clarity in these instances is well intentioned, their behaviors reflect an assumed position of superiority. This false sense of superiority becomes even more pronounced when these individuals take it upon themselves to define the group without input from that group. As a result, members of these groups lose their right to define and name themselves on their own terms

Being aware of the power of our language is not about being politically correct. It is about treating people with respect and dignity and increasing awareness. In an article entitled, “Words are potent weapons for all causes, good or bad”, Kathy Lechman, Leader, Diversity Development, Ohio State University Extension, shares examples of some common statements that many of us have repeatedly heard throughout our lives. While many of these are seemingly innocuous, others are blatantly derogatory and offensive. Whatever the case these statements convey beliefs and attitudes that ultimately take away from the dignity and respect that should be afforded all individuals.

I went to the car dealership and really “Jewed them down”. This is America, everyone can achieve if they really wanted to, and people on welfare just lazy and out for a free ride. Why do those people keep causing problems and asking for special treatment? The only people who live in trailer parks are poor white trash. People from small towns are stupid rednecks. I am not prejudiced; some of my best friends are

. I do not have a problem with gay or lesbian people, as long as they don’t try to convert me. I don’t see color, we are all the same. Young people are nothing but trouble. Fat people are lazy and lack discipline. Look at that poor crippled person. You are such an Indian giver. Get your cottonpicking hands off of that! Generation Xer’s have no work ethic and do not know the meaning of the word loyalty. Old people should have their driver’s licenses taken away because they cannot drive. You are so retarded.

In her fact sheet, The Evolving Language of Diversity, retired Senior Extension Associate (Cornell Cooperative Extension), Kathy Castania, provides us with some wonderful insights as to the power that words have to shape our thoughts, convey beliefs and perpetuate attitudes about groups. The fact sheet provides for understanding the challenges that come with creating a common language around diversity that is both affirming and empowering. The article provides an excellent historical overview that can help us to contextualize the evolution of language around diversity.

Beyond providing a historical framework, Kathy also identifies some common pitfalls and misused terms across multiple dimensions of diversity including gender, abilities, class, sexual orientation, etc. Alternative strategies that can be quickly incorporated into our day-to-day interactions with colleagues and program audiences are presented throughout the article, along with resources for additional exploration and ongoing development making this fact sheet an indispensable tool for advancing the work of Extension in increasingly diverse environments.

What does it mean by being. . . Monolingualism? Bilingualism? Multilingualism?

MONOLINGUALISM The ability to use only one language usual misfit

BILINGUALISM & MULTILINGUALISM The ability to use two or more than two languages. unusual normal requirement

Bilingualism & Multilingualism Do not necessarily have exactly the same abilities in the languages. Have varying degrees of command of the different repertoires The differences in competence in the various languages might range from v v v command of a few lexical items formulaic expressions (e. g. Greetings) rudimentary conversational skills excellent command of the grammar vocabulary specialized register and styles. ’

Society with more than one languages. . . Ones must find out who uses what, when, and for what purpose if they are to be socially competent. The language choices are part of the social identity you claim for themselves.

Bilingual vs. Bidialectal Defining different dialects and languages are difficult the bilingual–bidialectal distinction that speakers make reflects social, cultural, and political aspirations or realities rather than any linguistic reality

Bilingualism drawbacks Regarded as problem Inferiority Being eradicated (Americanization) Leading to language loss Leading to diffusion (certain features spread from one language to the other/s as a result of the contact situation, particularly certain kinds of syntactic features)

Multilingualism is a powerful fact of life around the world, a circumstance arising at the simplest level, from the need to communicate across speech communities’ (Edwards 1994: 1).

Multilingualism may indeed be a fact of life, as Edwards maintains above, and people use the term freely, but what exactly is meant by it? The definition of multilingualism as used here centres on the practice of using more than one language, to varying degrees of proficiency, among individuals and societies. It includes individuals who use one language at home, and another (or others) outside the home; it means people who have equal ability in two or three languages;

It includes individuals who use one language at home, and another (or others) outside the home; it means people who have equal ability in two or three languages; it includes people who can function much better in one language but who can still communicate in another (or other) language(s); it refers to societies and nation-states who use more than one language in a variety of situations to varying degrees. Basically, multilingualism is the co-existence of more than one language in any given situation , which, is actually the norm for most people and not the exception

For example, here is a sign in Glasgow, Scotland (UK) which reflects local multilingualism:

The question of how to define bilingualism or multilingualism has engaged researchers for a very long time. Some researchers have favored a narrow definition of bilingualism and argued that only those individuals who are very close to two monolinguals in one should be considered bilingual. More recently, however, researchers who study bilingual and multilingual communities around the world have argued for a broad definition that views bilingualism as a common human condition that makes it possible for an individual to function, at some level, in more than one language. The key to this very broad and inclusive definition of bilingualism is 'more than one'.

From the perspective of this framework, a bilingual individual is not necessarily an ambilingual (an individual with native competency in two languages) but a bilingual of a specific type who, along with other bilinguals of many different types, can be classified along a continuum. Some bilinguals possess very high levels of proficiency in both languages in the written and the oral modes. Others display varying proficiencies in comprehension and/or speaking skills depending on the immediate area of experience in which they are called upon to use their two languages.

According to this perspective, one admits into the company of bilinguals individuals who can, to whatever degree, comprehend or produce written or spoken utterances in more than one language. Thus, persons able to read in a second language (e. g. French) but unable to function in the spoken language are considered to be bilinguals of a certain type and placed at one end of the continuum. Such persons are said to have receptive competence in a second language and to be 'more bilingual' than monolinguals who have neither receptive nor productive abilities in a language other than their first. The judgment here is comparative: total monolingualism versus a minor degree of ability to comprehend a second language

Types of Bi- and Multilinguals Because there are very different kinds of bilinguals and multilinguals, much effort in the study of bilingualism has gone into developing categories which might make the measurement and description of these differences possible. The categories used to describe different types of bilinguals reflect different researchers' interests in focusing on specific aspects of bilingual ability or experience

Researchers concerned about the age of acquisition of bilingualism, for example, classify bilingual individuals as either early or late bilinguals and further subdivide early bilinguals into simultaneous bilinguals (those who acquired two languages simultaneously as a first language) or sequential bilinguals (those who acquired the second language (L 2) after the first language (L 1) was acquired).

Researchers, on the other hand, concerned about the differences between persons who choose to study a second language and those who grow up in communities where several languages are spoken have used the terms elite, academic, and elective bilinguals for the former and natural, folk, and circumstantial bilinguals for the latter.

The usefulness of these labels and categories clearly depends on the specific interest a researcher has in bilingualism. Meaningful comparisons of bilingual persons cannot generally be made unless attention is given to the differences and similarities between these individuals in terms of a number of key dimensions such as age of acquisition of the second language, circumstances in which the two languages are used, patterns of use of the two languages in the surrounding community, level of formal education received in each language, and degrees of proficiency

Suggested Readings Appel, R, and P. Muysken. 1987. Language contact and bilingualism. London: Edward Arnold. Grosjean, F. 1982. Life with two languages. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Hamers, J. F. , and M. H. A. Blanc. 1989. Bilinguality and bilingualism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Weinreich, U. 1974. Languages in contact. The Hague: Mouton. Romaine, S. 1989. Bilingualism. Oxford: Basil Blackwel

Discussions A distinction is sometimes made between communities in which there is stable bilingualism and those in which there is unstable bilingualism; Switzerland, Canada, and Haiti are cited as examples of the former, and the linguistic situations found in cities like New York or among many immigrant peoples as examples of the latter. Why are the terms stable and unstable useful in such circumstances? Could you mention some cases happen in Indonesia?

Discussions A speaker of English who wants to learn another language, particularly an ‘exotic’ one, may find the task difficult. Speakers of that other language may insist on using what little English they know rather than their own language, and there may also be compelling social reasons that prevent the wouldbe learner from achieving any but a most rudimentary knowledge of the target language. What factors contribute to this kind of situation? How might you seek to avoid it?

Discussions Is it possible to have a society in which everyone is completely bilingual in the same two languages and there is no diglossia? How stable would such a situation be?

Discussions Some communities regard bilingualism as a serious threat; it has even been referred to as a ‘Trojan horse, ’ initially attractive but ultimately fatal. Why might this be so? (Consider the experience of migration and also the sorry state of many minority languages in the world. ) Could you mention currently happening case in the world?