Bell Ringer What are different ways we learn

Bell Ringer What are different ways we learn? Discuss with your partner – 3 mins Share out – 3 mins 1

Learning Chapter 8 2

Learning How Do We Learn? Classical Conditioning § Pavlov’s Experiments § Extending Pavlov’s Understanding § Pavlov’s Legacy 3

Learning Operant Conditioning § Skinner’s Experiments § Extending Skinner’s Understanding § Skinner’s Legacy § Contrasting Classical & Operant Conditioning 4

Learning by Observation § Bandura’s Experiments § Applications of Observational Learning 5

Definition Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience. Learning is flexible. When talking about learning, what do the following statements mean? What does relatively permanent mean? What does learning is flexible mean? How do you know when you learn something? 6

How Do We Learn? We learn by association. Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence. By linking two things together, we learn to expect an specific outcome. What association do you make 7 with this flag?

Stimulus-Stimulus Learning to associate one stimulus with another. 8

Stimulus-Stimulus Learning to associate one stimulus with another. We associate lightning with thunder. Thunder scares us. When we see lightning, we get scared 9

Response-Consequence Learning to associate a response with a consequence. 10

Response-Consequence Learning to associate a response with a consequence. 11

Classical Conditioning Sovfoto Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical theories. However, it was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated (made clear) classical conditioning. His work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson and B. F. Skinner. Ivan Pavlov (1849 -1936) 12

Pavlov’s Experiments Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not. 13

Pavlov’s Experiments During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR) 14

Classical Conditioning US – Unconditioned Stimulus o. Food UR – Unconditioned Response o. Salivation CS – Conditioned Stimulus o Bell CR – Conditioned Response o. Salivation without food present 15

I need two volunteers • • Please only volunteer if you: Can read from a list of words Don’t mind getting a little wet (water on face) Everyone else, as you watch the activity, identify the US, UR, CS, and CR. 16

CAN, dish, CAN, bridge, scale, can, fan, board, CAN, cool, three, horn, disk, CAN, can, cast, test, pen, dime, CAN, dish, van, card, stand, meat, pad, can, dish, set, can, tree, ice, plum, can, cost, bird, glass, can, light, can, sword, juice, can, dish, rock, smoke, grease, dish, keep, kid, tan, dice, hole, set, dish, eye, friend, wax, bill, bulb, dish, class, mine, mark, work, can, dish, can, bus, dish, phone, can, smart, first, can, crack, feet, can, tub, bowl, can, van, day, can, rake, dish, CAN, bluff, risk, CAN, salt, dish, CAN, ball, stack, CAN, rain, hat, food, can, van, disk, tree, can, cup, can, lime, CAN, dish, girl, chalk, can, dish, CAN, key, screen, ran, CAN, disk, CAN, knob, bag, tape, CAN, dish, clip, CAN, air, ban, cheese, CAN, door, can, box, dish, hair, CAN, ring, nail, CAN, boat, cap, dish, CAN, crane, wheel, fire, CAN, dish, king, cape, apple, CAN, dog, blue, can, dish, CAN, take, call, brick, pair, CAN, spin, chair, 17 CAN, camp.

What happened? • Did you see an example of learning occurring? Explain • What happened when “CAN” was read? How about “can”? • What happened when a word that sounded like “can” was read? 18

Bell Ringer – What would be the US, UR, CS, and CR in the following scenerio? – ½ sheet of paper - 4 mins. An experimenter rings a bell just before blowing a puff of air into your face. After several repeats of this behavior, you begin to blink when you hear only the bell. 19

Acquisition is the initial stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place. 1. In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus. 2. The time in between the two stimuli should be about half a second. 20

Acquisition The CS needs to come half a second before the US for acquisition to occur. 21

Extinction When the US (food) does Example - I LOVE popcorn not follow the CS (tone), – When I make and eat popcorn, my dog sits at my CR (salivation) begins to feet. In the beginning, I decrease and eventually gave my dog a piece of popcorn every so often. It causes extinction. got to the point where she expected popcorn every time. The last few times, I have withheld popcorn from my dog. Last night. She didn’t even come over and sit at me feet when I had my popcorn. 22

Spontaneous Recovery After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again. 23

Stimulus Generalization Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization. Pavlov and his students realized that the dogs responded to similarly to different tones. The responses weren’t as strong as the Conditioned Stimulus 24

Stimulus Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. 25

Extending Pavlov’s Understanding Pavlov considered consciousness, or mind, unfit for the scientific study of psychology. However, they underestimated the importance of cognitive processes (thoughts, perceptions, and expectations) and biological constraints. 26

Cognitive Processes Early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be reduced to mindless mechanisms. However, later behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a stimulus (Rescorla, 1988). 27

Biological Predispositions Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all animals. Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differ in their learning. However, behaviorists later suggested that learning is constrained by an animal’s biology. 28

Biological Predispositions Courtesy of John Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours), but yet result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning and not to others (light or sound). John Garcia 29

Biological Predispositions Even humans can develop classically to conditioned nausea. 30

Pavlov’s Legacy Pavlov’s greatest contribution to psychology is isolating elementary behaviors from more complex ones through objective scientific procedures. Ivan Pavlov (1849 -1936) 31

Classical Condition in society Discuss – What examples of classical conditioning have we witnessed in society? If you haven’t witnessed any examples of classical conditioning, how might classical conditioning be used in society? 32

Applications of Classical Conditioning Brown Brothers Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising campaigns for a number of organizations, including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break” an American custom. John B. Watson 33

Applications of Classical Conditioning 1. Alcoholics may be conditioned (aversively) by reversing their positive-associations with alcohol. 2. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response. 34

Homework Monday’s homework – Read and complete terms – Ch 8 pg. 313 -325 Tuesday’s homework – Read and complete terms – Ch 8 pg 326 -339 Who is Skinner? What did he do? What did we learn from him? 35

Bell Ringer • Looking back on everything we have covered and learned this year, what psychological concept we have discussed is evident today? • With your partner/neighbor, be able to explain what psychologcial concept is and why it occurred. • 3 -4 minutes 36

Operant & Classical Conditioning 1. Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events. 37

Operant & Classical Conditioning 2. Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli. 38

B. F. Skinner • Burrhus Frederic "B. F. " Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990) was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher. He was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974. 39

Foundation for Skinner’s Experiments Skinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s thinking, especially his Law of Effect. This law states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur again. 40 Yale University Library

Operant Chamber Walter Dawn/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 41 From The Essentials of Conditioning and Learning, 3 rd Edition by Michael P. Domjan, 2005. Used with permission by Thomson Learning, Wadsworth Division Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting point, Skinner developed the Operant Chamber, or the Skinner Box, to study operant conditioning.

Operant Chamber The operant chamber, or Skinner box, comes with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water. The bar or key is connected to devices that record the animal’s response. http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=I_ct. Jqjlr. HA http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=eu. INCr. Dbb. D 4 42

Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations. Fred Bavendam/ Peter Arnold, Inc. Khamis Ramadhan/ Panapress/ Getty Images A rat shaped to sniff mines. A dog shaped to locate drugs. A manatee shaped to discriminate objects of different shapes, colors and sizes. 43

Types of Reinforcers Reinforcer - Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. A heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold. Reuters/ Corbis 44

Primary & Secondary Reinforcers 1. Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink. Example – receiving food if hungry, blanket if cold, etc… 2. Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcer: A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer. Example – If you know you get praise for good grades, you will 45 work at getting good grades.

Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers 1. Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A student gets a piece of candy for volunteering. 2. Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week. – Another example – you study and work all week to get a good grade on the test. We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require consistent study. 46

Reinforcement Schedules 1. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs. Example – piece of candy every correct answer 2. Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time. Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on. 47 Example – Slot machine at a casino.

Ratio Schedules 1. Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. e. g. , Pigeon rewarded after 30 pecks. 2. Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. This is hard to extinguish because of the unpredictability. (e. g. , behaviors like gambling, fishing. ) 48

Interval Schedules 1. Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (e. g. , preparing for an exam only when the exam draws close. ) 2. Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses. (e. g. , pop quiz. ) 49

Homework • Complete Terms – thru pg. 341 • Complete reading text thru pg. 341 • Think about Operant Conditioning. What are some examples you have experienced of someone (parent, guardian, teacher, minister, etc…) using operant conditioning on you. Come to class ready to discuss. 50

Schedules of Reinforcement 51

Punishment An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows. 52

I asked you would you rather always receive positive or always negative How many choose punishment: positive? negative? IIIII Why? Temporary – get it over with Straight forward Associate punisher with negative thoughts Less disruption of life Teaches discipline Warning shot Can easily get out of it by taking what is given you IIIII I Why? Not harmful/hurtful Makes you think about behavior Age appropriate More meaningful It works – teachers me No physical contact More effective – Calm 53 Teachers life lessons

Punishment Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind, 2002), it usually leads to negative effects. 1. 2. 3. 4. Results in unwanted fears. Conveys no information to the organism. Justifies pain to others. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its absence. 5. Causes aggression towards the agent. 6. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in place of another. 54

Extending Skinner’s Understanding Skinner believed in inner thought processes and biological underpinnings, but many psychologists criticize him for discounting them. 55

Cognition & Operant Conditioning Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the layout of the maze (environment). 56

Latent Learning – Present but not visible Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930). 57

Motivation Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments. 58

Skinner’s Legacy Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will. Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc . 59

Applications of Operant Conditioning Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct rewards. LWA-JDL/ Corbis In School 60

Applications of Operant Conditioning Reinforcement principles can enhance athletic performance. In Sports 61

Applications of Operant Conditioning Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share profits and participate in company ownership. At work 62

Applications of Operant Conditioning In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence. 63

Operant vs. Classical Conditioning pg. 339 64

Homework • Finish reading and complete terms for Ch 8 • Learning by Observation. • Test on Friday 65

Learning by Observation 66 ©Herb Terrace The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward. © Herb Terrace Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others.

The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward. 67

Reprinted with permission from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Subiaul et al. , Science 305: 407 -410 (2004) © 2004 AAAS. Mirror Neurons Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning. 68

Learning by observation begins early in life. This 14 -month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart. Meltzoff, A. N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants. Child Development, 59 1221 -1229. Photos Courtesy of A. N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk. Imitation Onset 69

Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others. Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University Bandura's Experiments 70

Applications of Observational Learning Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects. 71

Positive Observational Learning Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects. 72

Gentile et al. , (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression. Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images Television and Observational Learning 73

Modeling Violence Children modeling after pro wrestlers Glassman/ The Image Works Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression. 74