Beliefs in Early China n The world is

Beliefs in Early China n The world is full of invisible spirits n n n Ancestors Charismatic humans who have died but are still available to help people The world is also full of nature spirits n n n Plants, animals, rivers, stones, mountains, stars Vitalized by cosmic energy Often personified and honored as deities

Beliefs in Early China--Shang Ti n n Lord-on-High Ruler of the universe Supreme ancestor of the Chinese Deities governing aspects of the cosmos and the local environment are subordinate to him

Beliefs in Early China--Shang Ti n n n Chou dynasty (c. 1122– 221 BCE) which overthrew the Shang focus shifted to Heaven as an impersonal power controlling the universe Rulers developed the idea of the “Mandate of Heaven” to justify their rule

Beliefs in Early China--Shang Ti n n n Human destiny is determined by virtuous deeds Rulers have a moral duty to maintain the welfare of the people and a spiritual duty to conduct respectful ceremonies for the highest heavenly beings

Taoism n n n Country of origin is China It began approximately 600 B. C. E. It originally means road or way The Tao represents the characteristics or behavior that makes each thing in the universe what it is The world is also used to mean reality as a whole, which consists of all the individual “ways”

Taoism—Central Beliefs: Tao n n n “unnamable, ” “eternally real” a basic concept that cannot be defined, like “goodness” Mystical reality that cannot be grasped by the mind

Taoism—Central Beliefs: Tao n The Tao-te Ching says: The Tao that can be told of Is not the Absolute Tao, The Names that can be given Are not Absolute Names. The Nameless is the origin of Heaven and Earth; The Named is the Mother of All Things. . .

Taoism—Central Beliefs--Tao n n n transcendent unity of all things, rather than separation. Chang Chung-yuan : “the value of Tao lies in its power to reconcile opposites on a higher level of consciousness. ” This higher level can only be attained when one ceases to feel any personal preferences

Taoism-n n n Seeks a carefree, natural way of life Simple life in harmony with nature Tradition of great mental and physical discipline

Taoism—Nature of the Divine n n Tao is the source of the universe and the Way of reality Tao is part of an amalgam of deities, spirits, and folk myths and devotions

Texts n n Tao-te-ching (The Classic of the Way and the Power) n n n (Lao-tsu) The author is obscure I Ching – the five classics (Book of Changes) Chuang-tzu

The Taoist Canon History of the Taoist Canon Throughout history the "Taoist Canon, " or Dàozàng 道藏 "Vault of the Way, " has suffered from: 1. lack of official status 2. lack of agreement about the contents across different Taoist sects 3. the tendency to include ever more works 4. much overlap among the works making it up, which copied constantly from each other 5. little coherence in content from one work to another 6. the inclusion of liturgical and meditational texts that make little sense without orally transmitted exegesis, rarely stable and often lost 7. lack of adequate indexing 8. a tradition that regarded the details of Taoist practice as secret, so that different families transmitted different collections of Taoist books, and none wanted to have their versions published

In the XXth century the last two issues were addressed, and Chinese and western scholars have rescued a fairly extensive canon, published it in multiple copies, and indexed it. Although there are several distinct themes, and some tend to be concentrated in certain sections, most themes are found in most sections, and the traditional organization of this vast library is both a blessing (because it represents a kind of standard) and a (somewhat greater) curse (because it inhibits understanding).

History of Taoism: Tao (pronounced "Dow") can be roughly translated into English as path, or the way. It is basically indefinable. It has to be experienced. It "refers to a power which envelops, surrounds and flows through all things, living and non-living. The Tao regulates natural processes and nourishes balance in the Universe. It embodies the harmony of opposites (i. e. there would be no love without hate, no light without dark, no male without female. )" 2

The founder of Taoism is believed by many to be Lao-Tse (604 -531 BCE), a contemporary of Confucius. (Alternate spellings: Lao Tze, Lao Tsu, Lao Tzu, Laozi, Laotze, etc. ). He was searching for a way that would avoid the constant feudal warfare and other conflicts that disrupted society during his lifetime. The result was his book: Tao-te-Ching (a. k. a. Daodejing). Others believe that he is a mythical character.

Taoism started as a combination of psychology and philosophy but evolved into a religious faith in 440 CE when it was adopted as a state religion. At that time Lao-Tse became popularly venerated as a deity. Taoism, along with Buddhism and Confucianism, became one of the three great religions of China. With the end of the Ch'ing Dynasty in 1911, state support for Taoism ended. Much of the Taoist heritage was destroyed during the next period of warlordism.

n After the Communist victory in 1949, religious freedom was severely restricted. "The new government put monks to manual labor, confiscated temples, and plundered treasures. Several million monks were reduced to fewer than 50, 000" by 1960. 3 During the cultural revolution in China from 1966 to 1976, much of the remaining Taoist heritage was destroyed. Some religious tolerance has been restored under Deng Xiao-ping from 1982 to the present time.

n Taoism currently has about 20 million followers, and is primarily centered in Taiwan. About 30, 000 Taoists live in North America; 1, 720 in Canada (1991 census). Taoism has had a significant impact on North American culture in areas of "acupuncture, herbalism, holistic medicine, meditation and martial arts. . . " 3

Taoism--I Ching (Book of Changes) n n a common source for Taoism and Confucianism regarded as a classic text in both traditions

Taoism--I Ching (Book of Changes) n To use this subtle system n n one respectfully purifies the divining objects—such as yarrow stalks or coins, which symbolize yin and yang asks a question casts the objects six times consults the I Ching for symbolic interpretation of the yin–yang combinations

Taoism--I Ching (Book of Changes) n n n hexagram number 46 --Sheng: “Pushing Upward, ” likened by some commentators to a tree emerging from the earth, growing slowly And invisibly: n n n Thus the superior person of devoted character Heaps up small things In order to achieve something high and great.

Hexagram 46: Sheng – Moving Upward / Striving n Above; Earth, the passive n Below; wind, gentleness, penetration n This hexagram represents the action of a shoot in the earth pushing upward with effort. Moving upward with effort against restraint brings success. Seek out the great man and have no fears.

Basic principles of life n n According to Confucianism, people can live a good life only in a well-disciplined society that stresses attention to ceremony, duty, and public service. To experience the transcendent unity of all things, rather than separation. Taoist sage takes a low profile in the world Taoist ideal is a person who avoids conventional social obligations and leads a simple, spontaneous, and meditative life close to nature.

Taoism—Central Beliefs: Yin and Yang n n n Yin—female (sun) Yang—male (Moon) Wisdom lies in recognizing their ever-shifting but regular and balanced patterns and moving with them

Taoism—Central Beliefs: Yin and Yang n Yin originally meant "shady, secret, dark, mysterious, cold. " n Yang in meant "clear, bright, the sun, heat. "

Taoism—Central Beliefs: Yin and Yang n each force contains the seed of the other, so that they do not merely replace each other but actually become each other

Taoism—Central Beliefs: Yin and Yang

Historical figures n n 1) Lao-tzu (approx. 600 B. C. E. ) – a curator of the royal library of the Chou dynasty, author of Tao Te Ching 2) Chuang-tzu (365 -290 B. C. E. ) – a minor gov’t official who left to become a hermit, survive chaos by detaching from it

Taoism--Lao-tzu n n “Old Master” older contemporary of Confucius Some think the Tao-te Ching was an oral tradition, derived from the teachings of several sages, and question whether Lao-tzu ever existed philosophy was addressed to those in leadership positions

Lao-tzu n n n “Water is the softest thing on earth. Yet its silken gentleness. Will easily wear away the hardest stone” Nothing is evil, but things may be out of balance The world is naturally in harmony

Who was Lao Tzu? Lao-tzu lived twenty-five centuries ago in ancient China. Even though the details of his existence are shrouded in the mist of time, we know with a fair degree of certainty that his name was Li Er. Legend has it that King Wu of Zhou appointed him head librarian of the imperial archives at Luoyang. In this capacity Lao-tzu was able to immerse himself in the study of history, philosophy and literature, gaining wisdom & insights along the way.

According to another well known legend, Confucius visited with Lao-tzu and came away in awe of Lao-tzu's intellect. Confucius recognized in Lao-tzu a deep understanding about the world that was above his own, and went so far as to liken Lao-tzu to the mysterious dragon. Lao-tzu decided to leave civilization behind when the House of Zhao began its decline. He departed Luoyang and headed through the Hangu Pass to some destination beyond the Great Wall.

Before leaving the gate at the Great Wall, a guard at the gate asked him to write down his thoughts on the Tao for posterity. Lao-tzu agreed, and wrote a small book in two parts, expressing his accumulated learnings in brief, concise yet profound language. This book survived over 2, 500 years and came to be known as the Tao Te Ching.

Taoism--Chuang-tzu n n Counseled indifference to birth and death “The Master came because it was time. He left because he followed the natural flow. Be content with the moment, and be willing to follow the flow. ”

Taoism--Chuang-tzu n asserted that the best way to live in a chaotic, absurd civilization is to become detached from it

Ritual and practice n n n Meditation Devotions Fasting The members of some Taoist groups have sought to attain immortality through magic, meditation, special diets, breath control, or the recitation of scriptures Taoist philosophy had a great influence on Chinese literature and art

Tai-chi chuan n n Developed in the eighteenth century as a training for martial arts, it is still practiced today by many Chinese at dawn and dusk for their health It looks like slow swimming in the air, with continual circular movement through a series of dance-like postures

Tai-chi chuan

Feng-shui (geomancy) n By observing the contours of the land the flows of wind and water, specialist in feng-shui could reportedly determine the best places for the harmonious placement of a temple, dwelling place, or grave

Ethics and Morality n Wu-wei n “non-action, ” or taking no intentional or invasive action contrary to the natural flow of things n Nothing is evil, but things may be out of balance

Ethics and Morality n Wu-wei n Even when difficulties arise, the sage does not panic and take unnecessary action: Sweet music and highly seasoned food Entertain for a while, But the clear, tasteless water from the well Gives life and energy without exhaustion. Lao-tzu 10

Ethics and Morality n Selflessness n leads to a higher level of knowledge beyond the distinctions of life and death

Taoism as a religion n Taoism has a hereditary priesthood. The priests conduct public rituals, during which they submit the people’s prayers to the gods of folk religion. The chief priest prays to other divinities on behalf of the worshipers. These divinities are not former human beings but represent aspects of the Tao.

Confucianism n n n Country of origin is China Is a philosophy bases on the ideas of the Chinese philosopher Confucius. It originated about 500 B. C. E. From the 100’s B. C. E. to the 1900 s C. E. , Confucianism was the most important single force in Chinese life. It influenced Chinese education, government, and attitudes toward correct personal behavior and the individual’s duty to society

Confucianism as religion n n Confucianism has no clergy and does not teach the worship of a God or gods or the existence of a life after death Confucianism is a guide to morality and good government From about 200 to 600 C. E. interest in Confucianism declined in China. Many Chinese turned instead to Buddhism and Taoism Revival of interest in Confucius philosophy began in the 600’s

Confucianism-n most effective strategy was for the rulers to perform classical rites and music properly so that they would remain of visibly high moral character and thus inspire the common people to be virtuous

Historical figures n n 1) Kung Chiu (Confucius) (551 -479 B. C. E. ) 2) Mencius 3) Hsun Tzu 4) Chu Hsi

Texts n n Six classics (University began to teach Confucian thoughts) Analects Book of Rites Reflections on Things at Hand

Nature of Divine n n Acceptance of popular deities Importance of ancestors

K’ung Fu-tzu n n Master K’ung Juchiao (the teaching of the scholars) Born in approximately 551 B. C. E. , during the Chou dynasty, into a family whose ancestors had been prominent in the previous dynasty He married at the age of nineteen and had at least two children

K’ung Fu-tzu n n He instructed his followers to engage the world according to a code of moral conduct and responsibility. Confucianism is enshrined in the Chinese way of life

K’ung Fu-tzu n n Constant warfare raged among the many states that made up China Rapid political change altered the structure of Chinese society, and many people no longer respected the established standards of behavior Confucius feared that this threat to orderly social life would lead to the destruction of civilization Confucius believed his society would be saved if it emphasized sincerity in personal and public conduct

Golden Rule n “What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others”

Confucius n n When Confucius died about 479 B. C. E. , he was largely unknown. His followers spread his ideas.

Meng Tzu n n n Commonly latinized as Mencius His lifetime (c. 390 -305 B. C. E. ) He emphasized the moral duty of rulers to govern by the principle of humanity and the good of the people He believed people were born good. He stressed the need to preserve “the natural compassion of the heart” that makes people human

Confucianism-Mencius n n major additions to the Confucian tradition were his belief in the goodness of human nature and his focus on the virtue of yi, or righteous conduct

Confucianism-Mencius n n n emphasized the moral duty of rulers to govern by the principle of humanity and for the good of the people. If rulers are guided by profit motives, this self-centered motivation will be reflected in all subordinates and social chaos will ensue

Confucianism-Hsun Tzu n n n human nature is naturally evil and that Heaven is impersonal, operating according to natural laws rather than intervening on the side of good government or responding to human wishes Humans must hold up their own end

Confucianism-Chu His n n the individual is intimately linked with all of the cosmos, “forming one body with all things”

Confucianism n Confucianism focuses on ways of developing a just and orderly society

Confucianism n n From about 200 B. C. E. until the beginning of the twentieth century, Confucianism was a state church-the official religion of China But after the 1949 Revolution, the communist government of the new People’s Republic of China vigorously repressed religion.

n n n Today, though officials provide no precise count, hundreds of millions of Chinese are still influenced by Confucianism Almost all Confucianist live in Asia There are 100, 000 followers of Confucius in North America

Central teachings n n n n We must always subordinate our self-interest to moral principle. In family, the individual must be loyal and considerate Families must remain mindful of their duties toward the larger community Layer upon layer of moral obligation integrates society as a whole Li – Sacred Rituals Yi – Right conduct Veneration of ancestors Tradition

Confucianism n n n On might argue that Confucianism is a less a religion than a model of disciplined living The historical dominance of Confucianism helps explain why Chinese culture is skeptical of the supernatural Confucianism shares with religion a body of beliefs and practices that have as their goal goodness, concern for others, and social harmony

Neo-Confucianism n Zhu Xi (1130 -1200) developed a branch of Neo-Confucianism called the rational wing. It emphasized study and investigation of Li, the pattern behind human and natural relationships.

Communism in China n n Confucianism continued to actively influence Chinese life until it came into conflict with Western ideas, especially Communism in the 1900 s. For many years, the Chinese Communist government opposed Confucianism because the philosophy encouraged people to look to the past rather than to the future. However, government opposition ended in 1977

Shinto n n n Country of origin is Japan It means the way of the gods Central beliefs n n Kinship with nature Goodness of Creation

Kami Spirits n n Kami are the basic force in mountains, rivers, rocks, trees, and other parts of nature Kami are the basic force in such processes as creativity, disease, growth, and healing

Shinto n n n Shinto emphasizes rituals and moral standards. It does not have an elaborate philosophy It does not stress life after death About 3 million people practice traditional Shinto priests lead ceremonies called matsuri

Shinto n n n Shinto myths appear in the Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan) Kojiki (The Record of Ancient Matters) Both written in the A. D. 700 s These myths tell how the kami created the world and established customs and laws. According to Shinto mythology, the sun goddess became the ancestor of Japan’s imperial family

Shrines n n n There are more than 100, 000 Shinto shrines in Japan Some public shrines consist of several buildings and gardens. Individual worshipers recite prayers and offer gifts of cakes and flowers to the kami

Ritual and practice n n n Purification – It consists of a confession of sins committed by individuals and by the nation as a whole, followed by a request that the kami remove the impure conditions caused by these sins. Tea ceremony Festivals A) Life-cycle oriented B) Seasonal Respect for relations and roles

State Shinto-n tenets included n n n obedience to the will of the divine emperor the connection of Japan with its kami ancestors the submission of the individual to the greater good of the empire

Buddhist and Confucian influences n n n Buddhism is still practiced side-by-side with Shinto As for Confucianism, seventeenth-century Japanese Confucian scholars attempted to free themselves from Buddhism and to tie the Chinese beliefs they were importing to the ancient Japanese ways Under the influences of Confucianism, Shinto developed such moral standards as honesty, kindness, and respect for one’s elders and superiors

Shinto today n n n In general, the ways of Shintoism are indigenous to Japan, and they remain so. Outside Japan, Shinto beliefs and practices are common only in Hawaii and Brazil, because many Japanese have settled there Shintoism has not been a proselytizing religion (that is, it does not seek to convert others).

Discussion Questions n n What role does nature play in the practice of Shinto? How does Shinto understand the sacred? How do Shinto practices and ceremonies reflect its respect for nature and the sacred? Historically, what influences has Shinto had on Japanese society and politics?

Integrating Questions n n n How do Taoism, Confucianism, and Shinto demonstrate a reverence for nature? Why do you think that Taoism, Confucianism, and Shinto are so closely tied to the historical cultures of China and Japan? What elements of Taoism, Confucianism, and Shinto are characteristic of the Eastern religious traditions that we have studied in this course?