Battling for Islam Umayyad Power February 3 Rise

Battling for Islam – Umayyad Power: February 3

Rise of New Islamic Worlds 1. The ‘Turks’: Seljuk Empire or ‘Seljuk of Rum’ 2. The Mongols: in Western Sphere 3. The ‘Turks’: Osmanli Dynasty – known as the Ottomans (in the west).

Rise of New Islamic Worlds (1) The Turks: n Met them first when discussing Islamic movement into Central Asia/frontiers with China n Among earliest sources for Turks are 6 th c. Chinese n ‘khans’ (chiefs) under nominal Tang Dynasty

Origins of Turkish Clans: Central Asia

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Evidence of early Turkic language: c. 730 n. Islam gaining influence under Umayyads in Asia [see lecture “End of Umayyad Caliphate”] n. Same era (6 th-8 th c. ): Turkish nomads moving West, into Anatolia: enlisted by Byzantines in 7 th c. against Sassanians (Persians)

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Migrations among Turikish nomadic clans: characterized Central Asia – push/pull factors n Reasons varied (climate e. g. drought; political conflict; attractions of better pasture, trade…) n In process: ‘jostling’ against each other and engaging in different conversions – both Christian and Islamic

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Oguz Turks: one of these ‘tribes on the move’ n Embraced Islam in the 10 th C. n Moved into Transovania under Khan Seljuk (chief of clan ‘Seljuk’) n Later moved further west: entered service of Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Turkish clans like Oguz important to Caliphate: n Abbasids exploited internal dissensions between Turkish clans n As protectors of frontiers, often fought against other Turks

Rise of New Islamic Worlds 1055: Seljuk Khan (Tugrul Bey) occupied Baghdad n One of these clan leaders turned his ‘army’ consisting of gazzi (those claiming to fight in the name of jihad) and mamluks (slave soldiers from various backgrounds) – against the very power it was supposed to be protecting

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Emergence of two Powers: n Abbasid Caliph left as nominal ‘Islamic’ authority, but Seljuk Khan demanded recognition as ‘temporal’ leader or ‘Sultan’ n Regime eliminated ‘Arabs’ from government and put ‘Persians’ in place: known as ‘Great Seljuk Empire’

Rise of New Islamic Worlds “Champions of Sunni Islam”: n Not only built empire but did so in name of Sunni Islam n Successor prepared campaign against Egypt because it was Shia (Fatimid) n But…developments in Anatolia more engaging

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Seljuk administration: based on continued jihad n Depended on warriors to ‘hold’ territory n Gazzis became largely autonomous force: raiding into and looting Byzantine territory n Seljuk Turks needed to move into Anatolia to ‘control’ situation

Rise of New Islamic Worlds 1071: took on Byzantines at Manzikert n Success opened Anatolia to Seljuk conquest n By 1080: had won control of region n BUT: attention to West had cost them in the East

Baghdad Seljuk Dynasty late 11 th C. : shows newly won Baghdad, Anatolia

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Having made peace with the Byzantines the Seljuks intended to attack Egypt: Khan Alp Arslan learned in Aleppo of the Byzantine advance n

Rise of New Islamic Worlds he returned north, met the Byzantines north of Lake Van: Battle of Manzikert n

Rise of New Islamic Worlds States carved out under nominal authority of Baghdad: n Had strong Turkish migration n Strongest centred on Konya: known as ‘Sultanate of Rum’ (or ‘Rum Sultanate’) – meaning ‘Rome’, reference to Anatolia being the legacy of ‘Eastern Roman Empire’

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Konya: n Ruled as tribal confederation n Ruling family chose Khan: loyalties to Clan n Succession frequently challenged

Rise of New Islamic Worlds “Cost” in terms of two issues: n. One: Authorities in Baghdad (still under impotent Abbasid Caliph): not interested in Anatolia n. No effort to exert/implement real authority in wake of military success n. May have been related to Mongols (Two, below)

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Two: n East suffering ongoing attacks by Mongols (developed below)

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Government/Administrative Structure: n Sultan: military leader who left ‘governing’ in hands of viziers (prime ministers): Persians n Emirs: governors, provincial military commanders n Begs : autonomous regional commanders [atabeg – equivalent of emir]

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Seljuks essentially replaced Byzantine officials: n New elite was Turkish and Muslim (rather than Byzantine and Christian): little else changed n Impact: gradual conversion to Islam, incorporation of Turkish culture, facilitated by growing levels intermarriage (both urban, rural)

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Impact of the Crusades: n First Crusade 1095: goal Jerusalem n Although Baghdad still ‘centre’ (and in Abbasid hands): real Crusade was against the Seljuks [refer also to Pope Urban’s speech 1095 – made it clear who HE saw as enemy: ‘Persians’]

Rise of New Islamic Worlds First Crusader Attack on Konya: n Defeat of Seljuks decisive and important n Led to re-establishment of Byzantine rule in western part of Anatolia and Coastal Syria – “Crusader States” [last week’s lectures]

Rise of New Islamic Worlds 1040 s: Seljuk Rum empire -- began to re-take many Christian conquests, including Konya n. Survived until late 13 th c. as ‘vassal’ of Mongols n. Mongols had successfully besieged Baghdad 1257 -8 [more below]: little interest in Anatolia treated Seljuks as ‘extensions’ of empire they had just conquered n

[pre Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1257 -8]

Rise of New Islamic Worlds By 1330 s: Anatolia, Syria n Several gazzi (term for warriors supposedly fighting jihad) ruled emirates competed for dominance, power against each other – largely autonomous of Eastern Regions n It was in this political chaos that new power emerged: ancestors of Ottomans [see below #3]

[post Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1257 -8]

Rise of New Islamic Worlds (2) The Mongols: Mongol Nomads from Central Asia: first drawn into powerful confederation by Genghis Khan c. 1200 n n This is after Salah ad-Din’s death (1193) but within era of the Ayyubid dynasty of which he was a part (1169 -1250)

Rise of New Islamic Worlds 1206 1218 1227

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Originally shamanist: as moved out of Central Asia – embraced range of religions they encountered including Buddhism, Christianity (Eastern) n and Islam: mostly Sunni but Shia in some regions n

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Gazan Khan (grandson Genghis): converted to Islam , made it ‘official’ religion (1295 -1304) [right] Coins minted in his name with Arabic/Islamic inscriptions [below]

Rise of New Islamic Worlds n Late 11 th c. : sporadic Mongol attacks on Baghdad n 1185: visitor described city as having “no beauty that attracts the eye…”

Rise of New Islamic Worlds 1242: last Abbasid Caliph came to power in Baghdad n Later Muslim accounts paint him as bad, immoral caliph, surrounded by equally corrupt court n Need to remember practice of ‘adjusting’ later accounts to ‘shape’ history: here he is the literal ‘end’ of the Arab-conquest based empire

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Most significant points: n while Caliph and most of Court were Sunni Muslims: vizier was Shia n Many resented, distrusted him: yet he was in ‘key’ position n Also military commander: ‘personally’ ambitious

Rise of New Islamic Worlds 1254: Khan Hulagu began campaigns into Middle East n Over two years: most local rulers just submitted n Faced resistance in Northern Iran: Ismailis – defeated them n By 1256: on the borders of Abbasid Caliphate

Hulagu [left] and his Army [above]

Rise of New Islamic Worlds 1256: Baghdad struck by major flood (Tigris River) n Led to internal violence: Shia – Sunni divide n Caliph’s son (Sunni) led massacre into Shia neighbourhood n Vizier (Shia) protected 100 s of refugees in own palace

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Identified by Chronicles as crucial moment: nproof that the Vizier later secretly supported the Mongols in their effort to take Baghdad n 1257: Baghdad under siege 1258: last Abbasid Caliph surrendered city to Mongol devastation: looting, burning, killings n [see readings]

* Hulagu’s Conquests – “Khanate” [above] Siege of Baghdad [right]

Mongol Empire c. 1256

Rise of New Islamic Worlds (3) The Ottomans: Early history shrouded in legends n Khan of Ogzuz Turks fled from violence of Mongol attacks in mid 13 th c. into Anatolia n Offered service to Sultan of Seljuk Rum n Given land ‘to defend’ (for empire) near Bursa

Rise of New Islamic Worlds *

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Well situated to profit from. . . n Rich agricultural land, pasture sea trade on both Mediterranean and Black Seas n commercial international caravan traffic – natural ‘carrefour’ n

Rise of New Islamic Worlds 1299: his son Osman succeeded n Founder of Osmanli (‘Ottoman’) Dynasty Exemplified Anatolian beg: established allies, raided neighbours, married into Christian families (his son married daughter of local Christian Chief) n n built principality ‘fiefdom’ (beylick)

Rise of New Islamic Worlds His wealth and ‘success’ in terms of Seljuk values: n attracted followers who brought their with herds made him attractive to local powerful dervishes [sufis] n drew Islamic scholars to his people -- and his people to Islam as process of conversion accelerated n

Rise of New Islamic Worlds *

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Osmanli beylick: emerged predominant in region n more respected and powerful than competing neighbours but not essentially ‘different’ n by time of death (1323/4), Osman able to: - strike coins in his name - issue endowment deeds - undertake long, military operations

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Rise of what would become Ottoman Empire explained in legend known as “Osman’s Dream” n written down long after Osman’s death (15 th c. ) Dream said to have come to Osman while sleeping in house of traditional holy man (shaykh), Edebali n

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Upon awaking, Osman spoke to the shaykh: “…I saw you in my dream. A moon arose from your breast. It rose and then descended into my breast. From my navel there sprang a tree. It grew up and turned green. It branched out and got complicated. The shadow of its branches covered the whole world. What does it mean? ”

Rise of New Islamic Worlds A second version differs slightly: the tree simply ‘sprouted’, its branches ‘encompassed the world’: “Beneath this shade there were mountains, and streams flowed forth from the foot of each mountain. Some people drank from these running waters, others watered gardens, while yet others caused fountains to flow. What does it mean? ”

Rise of New Islamic Worlds And the Shaykh replied: “Osman, my son, congratulations for the imperial office [bestowed by God] to you and your descendants, . . . and my daughter Malhun shall be your wife!”

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Legend serves same role as earlier Chronicles: similar explanation to Hoylands writing of 9 th century sources ‘constructing’ particular vision of earlier Islamic conquests, Caliphs and so on n shaped by what was happening at the time of writing (here believed to be mid-to-late 1400 s) n n legitimized Ottoman religious, military power

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Osman took title of ‘Sultan’ in recognition of power of his beylick: established political administration that engaged gazzi (essentially ‘free-lance’ warriors) to work in interests of state n n paid them with loot and plunder from battles

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Lifelong goal: to capture Byzantine city of Bursa laid seige in 1317; Osman’s son Orhan delivered final blow in 1326 (Osman literally on deathbed) n governor submitted: ‘gift’ of precious clothes, 40, 000 gold coins -- allowed to leave with family n n. Bursa became new Capital of Ottoman State

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Taking of Bursa: watershed Marked beginning of ‘sedentarization’ of nomadic society n Byzantines incorporated into Ottoman bureaucracy: literate scribes, trained administrators n norigins of new ‘urban’, literate class in society

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Osmanli ‘Ottomans’ now well situated for: n n raiding into fertile, wealthy Anatolian lands military expansion into Balkans [main achievement of Orhan]

Rise of New Islamic Worlds involvement in politics of Constantinople and further profitable alliances e. g. with Genoa n (and ultimately) building of permanent base across Dardanelle straits after capture of Gallipoli (1354) n

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Under Murad I (1359 -89): conquered most of “Rumelia” (lands of the Romans) – encircled but did not succeed in taking Constantinople n n Ottoman seat of government moved to Edirne

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Major setback for Ottomans: Bayzid I (1389 -1403) – brought all three ‘new Islamic worlds’ together strategy for consolidating/defending power in Anatolia involved Byzantine employment of Seljuks – and Seljuk engagement of gazzi as warriors and frontier ‘guards’ n gazzi attracted purely by plunder (rather than ‘loyalty’) began defecting to Mongols [see above] n

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Timur Lenk (“Tamarlane” in the West): n began attacking Osmanli emirates: in 1402 captured Sultan Bayezid I n Taken as prisoner to Timur Lenk

Rise of New Islamic Worlds story: he was ‘displayed in a cage’, then imprisoned – where he died the following year n Mongols then turned back towards Eastern interests, restored emirates to Seljuks/Osmanlis n

Rise of New Islamic Worlds By 1420 s: Ottoman power ‘reviving’ in Anatolia goal remained conquest of ‘jewel in crown’ – Constantinople n By mid-century, undertaking campaigns against city n

Constantinople *

Rise of New Islamic Worlds 1451: Sultan Mehmed II took power it was he who delivered on the hadith that predicted that after the retaking of Jerusalem would come the victory of Muslim forces over the centre of Christendom n n. After 50 -day siege: Mehmed II and his army marched into defeated Constantinople, ending 1400 years of Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire

The Siege [left] The Battle for the City [below]

Mehmet ‘The Conqueror’ Enters Constantinople after its Fall to Ottomans 1453

Rise of New Islamic Worlds Affirmed new centre for Islamic Caliphate: Edirne became second capital, Constantinople (only much later named Istanbul) centre of Islam n century later under Suleiman ‘the Magnificent’, Ottoman Empire achieved largest expansion, well into Europe, Africa, Arabia and Asia: this Islamic Empire lasted over 500 years (1923) – much longer than any of its predecessors n

Suleiman ‘The Magnificent’ tughra (signature) above reads: “Suleiman shah ibn Selim shah khan al-muzzafar al-Daiman” -“Suleiman Shah son of Khan Selim, ever (the) victorious” (‘khan’ - Mongol Father, ‘Shah’ - Persian self)