Battling for Islam 622 652 January 16 20

Battling for Islam (622 -652): January 16 -20

‘The Prophet’s Wars’ This Week: ‘Arab Conquests’ during time of Muhammad*, First Three Caliphs [Abu Bakr (632 -4), ‘Umar I (634 -44), ‘Uthman (644 -56)]** Monday: I ‘The Prophet’s Wars’ (622 -43)** Wednesday: II Expansion: ‘Jewel in the crown –Egypt’ Friday: III “Empire of Faith? ”: conquest to governance *using Hoyland’s spelling. Also written in other ways in various sources – e. g. Muhammed, Mohmmad, Mohamed ** Hoyland does not use the term ‘Rashidun’ used elsewhere (e. g. on maps); Umar’s battles subsumed here to first stage ‘Prophet’s Wars’

Expansion Westward: Egypt Part II The ‘Jewel in the Crown’: Expansion into Egypt (640 -642)

‘World’ c. 626

‘World’ c. 650

Setting the Scene: c. 640 Byzantine Empire: n n n army depleted (plague, defeats in Levant) Heraclius instructed garrisons/troops not to engage Arabs directly meanwhile, cities and towns continued to ‘fall’: military defeat or negotiated surrender

Setting the Scene: c. 640 Byzantine Empire: n n 541 Emperor Heraclius died succession dispute: son (by second wife) favoured ‘negotiating peace’ with Arabs vs. Grandson (10 yrs old) represented by general who favoured war

Setting the Scene: c. 640 Byzantine Empire: n n Grandson/General successful: but continued military failures put general out of favour (hanged by mob) Empire left in hands of child at critical moment

Setting the Scene: c. 640 Persia: n Emperor Yazdgird literally on the run after Battle of Qadisiyya n wealthiest part of empire (Jazira) in hands of Arabs n Empire ceased to function as ‘integral entity’: local chiefs, nobles made private agreements with Arabs n negotiated to keep as much of personal/family wealth and power as possible

Setting the Scene: c. 640 Persia: n Example: local ‘potentates’ exempted from the taxes everyone paid to the Arabs* in exchange for allying with Arabs against any local uprisings, enemies. * note: importance of ‘control’ was not just political it had real economic value through tax structure)

Setting the Scene: c. 640 Persia: n n some sought Arab ‘allies’ to deal with old enemies, new competitors Also: Arabs astute at ‘divide and rule’ tactics Wide variety of situations – all marked disintegration of ‘empire’ per se, expansion of Arab influence without necessarily political or administrative control

Setting the Scene: c. 640 Arab Caliphate: n [Hoyland] have little contemporary documentation n main source Sebeos (Armenian): says military commander based in Damascus while ‘king’ (Caliph) resided in ‘Arabia’. n from summer of 634, ‘king’ was Umar ibn al. Khattab n (Sebeos): ’when the Arabs marched out from the desert, their King did not go with them’

Setting the Scene: c. 640 Arab Caliphate: n n n religious, political decisions lay in Caliph’s hands (according to later sources) clear that day-to-day decisions and military strategy lay with Commander in Damascus Mu’awyia: son of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, the influential Meccan whose daughter Muhammad had married

Setting the Scene: c. 640 Arab Caliphate: n [Hoyland]: points out that Abu Sufyan was of the Umayyad clan n Muhammed’s cousin ‘Uthman became 3 rd Caliph (644 -56) n Umayyads had ‘taken firm hold of the reigns of the conquest enterprise from very early date’ -- well before Umayyad Caliph officially in place with Mu’awiya in 661

Expansion Westward: Egypt: ‘Jewel in crown of Byzantine empire’ n. Nile River flood lands, large population n‘breadbasket’ of empire: 300 million bushels grain annually delivered to Constantinople nextremely lucrative tax revenues

Expansion Westward: Egypt n unlike other parts of Empire, had been more or less at peace n Exception: Persian ‘onslaught’ 617 -19

Expansion Westward: Egypt [Hoyland]: non-Muslim sources show Heraclius ordering armies from Tunisia (633) and Libya (? ) to assist Egypt against Arab raids: n n suggests activity before main conquest: surprisingly, no mention in Muslim sources –so don’t know who, exactly, or why might have just been raids seeking plunder in search of booty, slaves

Expansion Westward: Egypt n n Was ill-prepared for Arab attacks in 640 -42 Caliph Umar: armies led by Amr ibn al-As (from related clan to Mu’awyia – important in terms of ‘clan’ influence)

Expansion Westward: Egypt Main source for Egyptian Conquest: n ‘John of Nikiu’ (Coptic Christian Bishop): covers 640 -43 (chronicle deals with time from Creation) [see additional rdgs] n(other sources): army left Palestine 639, marched westward, secured trail behind n turned south towards Babylon (suburb of Cairo): Chronicle picks up story

Expansion Westward: Egypt Two armies: n Amr’s in north n another approached from south n looks to have crossed Red sea, followed Nile north: poised to join main army at Babylon n problem: southern army on west side of river, Amr’s on east: did not want to attack Babylon (main Byzantine garrison) without full army

Expansion Westward: Egypt Staged battle to north east: Heliopolis (640) n Hoyland describes strategy: drew out Byantine army, Amr divided his own into three n entrapped Byzantines: successful First victory in Egypt – also in Africa: Islam no longer only an Asian religion

Expansion Westward: Egypt Consequences [Hoyland]: n clear Arabs here to stay: Chronicle says ‘everyone fled’ to Alexandria (north sea port) n commander in rich southern oasis Fayum fled to Nikiu: southern army took wealthy fertile region

Expansion Westward: Egypt Chronicle: n people beginning to ‘help’ the Arabs n some even ‘apostasizing’ – n not popular but clearly many ready to put practicalities ahead of religion Why?

Expansion Westward: Egypt People taking up ‘faith of the beast’ (Chronicle): n typical of ‘world’ in late 6 th, early 7 th century n loyalty to particular religion (Christianity, Judaism, other) susceptible to weakness in face of stronger army n integration religious faith and military power/wealth n.

Expansion Westward: Egypt n Mistake to think ‘Islam’ won over these people n armies professing the Islamic faith showed themselves to be the more powerful ‘patron’: real sense that those who God favoured, prospered n to become Muslim could not be all bad Rhetoric about ‘righteousness’; reality for ‘normal people’ was material well-being and security

Expansion Westward: Egypt Unlike earlier conquests, Egyptian towns didn’t fall like dominoes: n many in delta region protected by water: Arab horses could not navigate n others strongly fortified, did not capitulate (e. g. Nikiu – home of Bishop John) n Arabs in first year made few inroads in north – battled constantly but mostly unsuccessfully

Expansion Westward: Egypt Babylon: n main target of Babylon remained in Byzantine hands in 641 n 5 hectares in size, walls more than 15 meters high, 3 meters thick, with circular towers 30 meters in diameter n Nile river came right to walls; small port allowed access to Byzantines

Expansion Westward: Egypt Arabs waited until flood waters receded, laid siege to town: n lacked means to breach fortification: worked on undermining moral n built bridge across water that blocked passage of supply ships from Alexandria n arrested officials, publicly displayed them in irons, attacked Byzantine soldiers n burned crops, destroyed possessions

Expansion Westward: Egypt Ultimate blow : n death of Heraclius 641 and ensuing succession dispute: meant no help likely from that quarter in foreseeable future n April 641, after 7 months siege: Babylon surrendered with promise from ‘Amr that soldiers would be spared

Expansion Westward: Egypt Alexandria: n summer of 642 began siege n historians debate issue: some say that anti. Chalcedonians (like Chronicler John)* welcomed, helped Arabs – only Chalcedonians rejected Arabs n [Hoyland]: no proof of this -- Chronicle never suggests supporting Arabs ‘were in any way well disposed to them’ * those who rejected Council Chalcedon 451

Expansion Westward: Egypt Only important divide: those who supported seeking peace vs. those who refused n Heraclius’ older son promised to send more troops to Byzantine Commander Theodore; then he died n younger brother reversed decision: reappointed Cyrus (Chalcedonian) who had been removed from position c 630 for supporting appeasement

Expansion Westward: Egypt In 641 Cyrus negotiated ‘Babylon agreement’: n Alexandra paid heavy tribute in gold n Byzantines given one year to get troops, equipment, possessions out of Alexandria n Arabs would not to interfere with ‘Christian affairs’ n refugees in Alexandria allowed to return home n Jews permitted to stay.

Expansion Westward: Egypt September 642: Theodore left Alexandria n ‘Amr ibn al-As entered the city n ‘the Arabs took possession of Egypt’, ending 1000 yrs of Roman-Byzantine control, beginning Muslim control that would last even longer [Hoyland] n people lamented only that they ‘had lost God’s favour’ End of John of Nikiu’s Chronicle

Expansion Westward: Egypt Last efforts to retake Egypt: (from other sources) n know that in 645, 300 ships sent to Alexandria n provoked local revolt against Arabs n Byzantines successful n but next year retaken back by Arabs [had significant consequences – see ‘Cyprus’ below]

Expansion from Egypt: South Nubia: n Attempts to conquer failed miserably (‘Nubian Archers’): n Agreement reached: Nubians left autonomous in exchange for tribute n First mention of ‘slaves’ from Africa in sources: Nubians to provide one-slave-per-day in return for foodstuffs (from north)

Expansion from Egypt: South n n n Commerce to continue between regions -- especially important along Nile River suggestion from sources: Arabs had taken to kidnapping/selling Nubians as slaves as important part of commerce Nubians appear to have created more powerful political alliances to defend themselves

Expansion from Egypt: South Failure to conquer Nubia may have protected Ethiopia: n Armies could have come across Red Sea but no evidence that they did n Surprising, given earlier Ethiopian rule over southern part of Yemen [last lecture] n Overall, expansion southward limited to (slave) raiding

Expansion from Egypt: West Libya: n According to Chronicle: agreement no sooner made with Cyrus in Alexandria than ‘Amr took troops west along coastal plain to Cyrenacia n Governor of province holed up in fortified town in mountains n Troops plundered, took captives but did not establish permanent control/administration n settled for agreement to pay tribute

Expansion from Egypt: West n n n ‘Amr said to have encountered fierce Berber nomads (who had earlier launched resistance against Byzantines): again, did not try to conquer Negotiated annual tribute that involved “selling which ever of their children they wished” Importance here: seems to be indirect reference to slave trade out of Africa – in this case, would have provoked growth in trade in order to pay tribute, generating long term consequences. . .

Expansion from Egypt: West Chronicle of John of Nikiu ends 643: n other sources speak of 647: another westward movement as far as ‘Ifriqiyya’ – Tunisia/eastern Algeria n Seat of Christian Count Gregory who had set himself up as emperor of last piece of Byzantine empire (had coins minted in his name)

Expansion from Egypt: West Very rich area, fertile, known for olive oil (much valued): n Arabs successfully battled Gregory and African allies) n BUT again did not stay: took booty and payment ‘to not return’ n Actually, no base established in North Africa outside of Egypt

Expansion from Egypt: Cyprus: n Mu’awiya realized that ease with which Byzantines sailed into Alexandria harbour 645/6 meant Arabs needed fleet to protect city n used forced labour (‘press-ganged’, slave) to build fleet n 3 years later decided to ‘test’ it on island of Cyprus

Expansion from Egypt: Cyprus 1700 ships sailed to island: n [Hoyland tells story]: they waited for island to surrender; when it did not -- went ahead with land assault n It is said that island had not realized these were Arabs (‘ships’ usually meant Byzantines), so they did not organize opposition until too late n Island very wealthy: able to collect gold and silver and slaves, enough to keep both armies happy (Egyptian and Syrian)

Expansion from Egypt: Cyprus [seemingly soon after] Byzantines sent troops to Cyprus to ‘hold’ it for empire n 650: another Arab force returned, took control of main cities n Byzantines unable to protect local population n Arabs gave them choice to leave for other parts of empire or stay – they would not be harmed.

Expansion from Egypt: Cyprus n n n Took all the (property) wealth Said to have taken 170000 slaves over two years [but if local population ‘unharmed’ – who were slaves? That many on island? ] Hoyland suggests numbers exaggerated; nevertheless ‘significant’ Important: again emphasizes how important plunder was to these ‘attacks’ – idea of spreading Islam not really apparent!!

Rashidun Empire 654