Basic Communications Systems Class 4 Todays Class Topics

Basic Communications Systems Class 4

Today’s Class Topics n Local Area Networks n n n What is a LAN? LAN Topologies Ethernet LANs Token Ring and FDDI LANs LAN Interconnection n Bridges Switches Routers

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Introduction A local area network is a communication network that interconnects a variety of data communicating devices within a small geographic area and broadcasts data at high data transfer rates with very low error rates. Since the local area network first appeared in the 1970 s, its use has become widespread in commercial and academic environments.

What is a LAN? n Key Elements: n High Communications Speed n Very Low Error Rate n Limited Geographic Boundaries n Simple Cabling System n Provides resource sharing (files, printers, disks, applications, etc. )

LAN Components n Workstations (PCs, etc. ) n n Interconnecting Cable n n Network Interface Card (NIC) or Network Adapter Card provides LAN interface. Typically twisted copper wire or optical fiber. Network Operating System (NOS) Software

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Advantages of Local Area Networks Ability to share hardware and software resources. Individual workstation might survive network failure. Component and system evolution are possible. Support for heterogeneous forms of hardware and software. Access to other LANs and WANs (Figure 7 -1). Private ownership. Secure transfers at high speeds with low error rates.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Basic Network Topologies Local area networks are interconnected using one of four basic configurations: 1. Bus/tree 2. Star-wired bus 3. Dual Ring 4. Star-wired ring 5. Wireless

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Bus/Tree Topology Baseband signals are bidirectional and more outward in both directions from the workstation transmitting. Broadband signals are usually uni-directional and transmit in only one direction. Because of this, special wiring considerations are necessary. Buses can be split and joined, creating trees, but this is not commonly done.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Bus Topology n n Used in early LANs (1970 s, 1980 s) All workstations and servers connected to same physical cable. Each transmission was broadcast to all other devices on LAN. Problems: n n One cable problem downs the network Hard to locate problems when they occur

Bus Topology Example: 10 Base 5 Ethernet

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Star-wired Bus Topology Logically operates as a bus, but physically looks like a star. Star design is based on hub. All workstations attach to hub. Hub takes incoming signal and immediately broadcasts it out all connected links. Hubs can be interconnected to extend size of network. This is THE most common LAN topology used today, in the form of 10 BASE-T Ethernet.

Star Topology n Advantages: n n Hub can isolate any network problems that occur Intelligent (managed) hub can collect network performance statistics

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Ring Topology n n n Devices connect sequentially in a ring. Each device transmits to the next. Problems: n n n One cable problem downs the network One workstation problem downs the network Used today only with dual-ring systems that can survive cable cuts

Dual Ring Example: Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) Dual-Attached Workstations in Normal Operation Dual-attached counter rotating rings Self healed after Link Failure Self-healing FDDI dual- link failure attached adapters GOLDMAN: LAN

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Star-wired Ring Topology Logically operates as a ring but physically appears as a star. Star topology is based on MAU (multi-station access unit) which functions similarly to a hub. Where a hub immediately broadcasts all incoming signals onto all connected links, the MAU passes the signal around in a ring fashion. Like hubs, MAUs can be interconnected to increase network size.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Wireless Topology Not really a specific topology since a workstation in a wireless LAN can be anywhere as long as it is within transmitting distance to an access point. Newer IEEE 802. 11 and 802. 11 b standard defines various forms of wireless LAN connections. Speeds up to 11 Mbps with 802. 11 b standard. Workstations reside within a basic service set, while multiple basic service sets create an extended service set.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Wireless Topology Two basic components necessary: the client radio, usually a PC card with an integrated antenna, and the access point (AP), which is an Ethernet port plus a transceiver. The AP acts as a bridge between the wired and wireless networks and can perform basic routing functions. Workstations with client radio cards reside within a basic service set, while multiple basic service sets create an extended service set.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Wireless Topology With directional antennae designed for point-to-point transmission, 802. 11 b can work for more than 10 miles. With an omnidirectional antenna on a typical AP, range may drop to as little as 100 feet. Distance is inversely proportional to transmission speed - as speed goes up, distance goes down.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Wireless Topology In actual tests, 11 Mbps 802. 11 b devices managed 5. 5 Mbps (from a July 2000 test by Network Computing). To provide security, most systems use Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), which provides either 40 - or 128 -bit key protection. Management of roaming clients not defined well by 802. 11 b. What will Bluetooth’s impact be on 802. 11 b?

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Medium Access Control Protocols How does a workstation get its data onto the LAN medium? A medium access control protocol is the software that allows workstations to “take turns” at transmitting data. Three basic categories: 1. Contention-based protocols 2. Round robin protocols 3. Reservation protocols

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Contention-Based Protocols Most common example is carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD), used in Ethernet If no one is transmitting, a workstation can transmit. If someone else is transmitting, the workstation “backs off” and waits.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Contention-Based Protocols If two workstations transmit at the same time, a collision occurs. When the two workstations hear the collision, they stop transmitting immediately. Each workstation backs off a random amount of time and tries again. Hopefully, both workstations do not try again at the exact same time. CSMA/CD is an example of a non-deterministic protocol.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Round Robin Protocols Each workstation takes a turn transmitting and the turn is passed around the network from workstation to workstation. Most common example is token ring LAN in which a software token is passed from workstation to workstation. Token ring is an example of a deterministic protocol. Token ring more complex than CSMA/CD. What happens if token is lost? Duplicated? Hogged? Token ring LANs are losing the battle with CSMA/CD LANs.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Reservation Protocols Workstation places a reservation with central server. Workstation cannot transmit until reservation comes up. Under light loads, this acts similar to CSMA/CD. Under heavy loads, this acts similar to token ring. Powerful access method but again losing out to CSMA/CD. Most common example of reservation protocol is demand priority protocol.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Medium Access Control Sublayer To better support local area networks, the data link layer of the OSI model was broken into two sublayers: 1. Logical link control sublayer 2. Medium access control sublayer defines the frame layout and is more closely tied to a specific medium at the physical layer. Thus, when people refer to LANs they often refer to its MAC sublayer name, such as 10 Base. T.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 IEEE 802 Frame Formats The IEEE 802 suite of protocols defines the frame formats for CSMA/CD (IEEE 802. 3) and token ring (IEEE 802. 5). Each frame format describes how the data package is formed. Note how the two frames are different. If a CSMA/CD network connects to a token ring network, the frames have to be converted from one to another.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Local Area Network Systems Ethernet or CSMA/CD Most common form of LAN today. Star-wired bus is most common topology but bus topology also available. Ethernet comes in many forms depending upon medium used and transmission speed and technology.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Ethernet Originally, CSMA/CD was 10 Mbps. Then 100 Mbps was introduced. Most NICs sold today are 10/100 Mbps. Then 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps) was introduced. 10 Gbps is in the process of being standardized.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Ethernet Enhancements Transmission can be full duplex (separate transmit and receive), and collisions can be eliminated if Ethernet switches are used rather than standard Ethernet hubs. (Switches explained further later) Data prioritization is possible using 802. 1 p protocol.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Local Area Network Systems IBM Token Ring Deterministic LAN offered at speeds of 4, 16 and 100 Mbps. Very good throughput under heavy loads. More expensive components than CSMA/CD. Losing ground quickly to CSMA/CD. May be extinct soon.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Local Area Network Systems FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) Based on the token ring design using 100 Mbps fiber connections. Allows for two concentric rings - inner ring can support data travel in opposite direction or work as backup. Token is attached to the outgoing packet, rather than waiting for the outgoing packet to circle the entire ring.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 Local Area Network Systems 100 VG-Any. LAN Deterministic LAN based on demand priority access method. Similar to hub topology (star design). Two levels of priority - normal and high. Supports a wide-variety of media types. Losing ground quickly to CSMA/CD. Will be extinct soon.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7 LANs In Action : A Small Office Solution What type of system will interconnect twenty workstations to a central server, which offers: • Electronic mail • A database that contains all customer information • Internet access • High quality printer access

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 7

Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User’s Approach Chapter 8 Local Area Networks Internetworking

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8 Introduction Many times it is necessary to connect a local area network to another local area network or to a wide area network. Local area network to local area network connections are usually performed with a bridge or switch. Local area network to wide area network connections are usually performed with a router.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8 Why Interconnect? To separate / connect one corporate division with another. To connect two LANs using different protocols. To connect a LAN to the Internet. To break a LAN into segments to relieve traffic congestion. To provide a security wall between two different groups of users.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8 Bridges / Switches A bridge or switch can be used to connect two similar LANs, such as two CSMA/CD LANs. Bridges connect to hubs. Switches can connect to PCs, hubs, or other switches. Each bridge or switch examines the destination address in a frame and either forwards this frame onto the next LAN or drops the frame.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8

Switched Ethernet

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8 Transparent Bridges A transparent bridge does not need programming but observes all traffic and builds routing tables from this observation. This observation is called backward learning. Ethernet switches are examples of Transparent Bridges

Ethernet Switches n Ethernet Switch n n n Receives Ethernet frame Looks up 6 -byte Destination Address in a Forwarding Table Sends frame out only the port associated with the Destination Address

Ethernet Switch

Bridge / Switch Operations n Each frame received by a bridge is stored, checked for errors and then re-sent as follows: n n If the Destination address is broadcast (FF: FF: FF: FF), the frame is sent out all ports except the one it arrived on. Else if the Source and Destination are both reachable from the same port of the bridge, the frame is dropped Else if the Source and Destination are reachable from different ports of the bridge, then the frame is re-sent out the destination port Each bridge keeps an internal Forwarding Table that associates addresses with ports.

Building Forwarding Table Bridge/Switch Learning: n For each arriving data frame, switch examines source address and adds/updates entry in Forwarding Table containing n n n Source Address (6 -byte format) Port that this frame arrived on Current Time

Switch Learning

Switches vs. Hubs n How is Switch different than a Hub? n n Broadcasting (and Security) n Hub broadcasts every packet to every device n Switch forwards packet out single port Matching Data Rates n n All ports on hub must run at same data rate Switch ports can run at different rates (can buffer incoming packet at one data rate and re-transmit at another data rate).

Full-Duplex Ethernet n n Full-Duplex Ethernet allows a workstation to send and receive data simultaneously. Requirements n Must have a full-duplex NIC card n Must be connected to Ethernet switch

Advantages of Switched Ethernet over Traditional Ethernet n Improved Bandwidth n n n Improved Security n n Ethernet switches don’t waste time on collisions Switches allow multiple simultaneous data streams Switches do not broadcast information to everyone Redundant inter-switch connections n Switches can utilize backup connections if data cables fail

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8

Switched Hierarchy n Switches allow network manager to put bandwidth where it is needed. n Some users get 10 Mbps shared (hub) n Some users get 10 Mbps dedicated (switch) n Some users get 100 Mbps shared (hub) n Some users get 100 Mbps dedicated (switch)

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8 Source-routing Bridges A source-routing bridge is found with token ring networks. Source-routing bridges do not learn from watching tables. When a workstation wants to send a frame, it must know the exact path of network / bridge / network … If a workstation does not know the exact path, it sends out a discovery frame. The discovery frame makes its way to the final destination, then as it returns, it records the path.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8 Routers The device that connects a LAN to a WAN or a WAN to a WAN. A router accepts an outgoing packet, removes any LAN headers and trailers, and encapsulates the necessary WAN headers and trailers. Because a router has to make wide area network routing decisions, the router has to dig down into the network layer of the packet to retrieve the network destination address.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8 Routers Thus, routers are often called “layer 3 devices”. They operate at the third layer, or OSI network layer, of the packet. Thus, each time they receive a packet, they strip off the “layer 2” header (such as Ethernet), and then create a new “layer 2” header for the next hop to the next router (or destination). Routers often incorporate firewall functions. An example of a router’s operation is shown on the next slide.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8

Router Operations n Routers modify layer 2 frame headers & trailers so packet can travel end-to-end over many links IP packets / TR frames Router modifies frame IP packets / PPP frames Router modifies frame IP packets / TR frames

Switches vs. Routers n How is Switch different than a Router? n n Addressing n Switch uses layer 2 MAC addresses n Router uses layer 3 IP address Speed & security n n Switch forwards packets fast (~50 -100 nsec). Router takes more time (~1 -50 msec) and provides other security features

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8 LAN Internetworking In Action: A Small Office Revisited Recall the In Action example from Chapter Seven. A small office with 20 workstations were connected to a server via 100 Base. TX. One hub was kept in a closet near the 20 workstations while a second hub was near the server.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8 LAN Internetworking In Action: A Small Office Revisited Now Hannah wants to connect the LAN to the Internet. She adds a router next to the server and connects it to the hub. She connects the router to a high-speed telephone line such as a T 1 service.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8 LAN Internetworking In Action: A Small Office Revisited Now network usage is so high that Hannah must consider segmenting the network. She decides to install a database server near the 20 workstations and replace the hub with a switch. Hopefully this will separate the database users from the Internet users.

Data Communications and Computer Networks Chapter 8