Attachment theory is a theory of interpersonal relationships

• Attachment theory is a theory of interpersonal relationships (Bretherton (1991) • It is only by being in social relationships that we can form a sense of self and become fully human (Howe , 1995) • Relationships underpin psychological development , social competence, and personal well being

Attachment Strategies • An attachment strategy reflects the way the child organises his/her behaviour with regard to his/her primary attachment person during infancy (Ainsworth , 1978) • The strategy that develops for the primary caregiver is valid but gets transferred to all other relationships as a pattern of behaviour. • The purpose of attachment is two fold, the provision of safety and the provision of comfort • Maternal sensitivity is the primary determinant of the quality of attachment at the age of one year.

Attachment & Social Care Practice • Social Care practice is about the creation of an environment in which individualised care giving of troubled clients occurs. • Bowlby suggests that the most influential factor in the development of such a relationship with a troubled person , is how the carer treats the young person , by how available the carer is to the young person and not to the young persons history. (Bowlby 1988) • The social care worker needs to become aware of what s/he contributes to the relationship. • The focus of the interaction must always be focussed on the here and now

• The social care intervention has two aims • 1. To keep the child/youth attachment strategy in the normative range • 2. To offer (when neccessary) a second chance to form a positive attachment which becomes a secure base for the young person • The secure base for the individual child is formed through the here and now of interactions building up a memory of positive shared experiences and a predictable future for on-going meaningful time with the social care worker.

• The insecurely attached young person often inhibits exploratory behaviour and the capacity for play trust and learning can be lost (Barrett & Travelli 1991) • The social care work aims to create a safe space where these skills can be recovered • Negative and ambivalent feelings must be allowed and the behaviours related to these feeling managed in a safe and respectful manner. • The life space is carefully managed to communicate a belief in each young person s potential for growth through a process of tuning into the young person to exploit interactions in which a sense of attachment and caring is felt. This is one of the essential features of child care work (Maier 1987)

• To provide such focussed care in a residential care setting requires a team of practitioners who collaborate in the provision of a secure base for each individual young person. The aim is to validate each young persons self worth • Sensitive care giving requires an ability to evaluate the young persons behaviour cues appropriately and respond quickly and pro-actively to attachment behaviours (George & Solomon 1999) • Admission to a residential care setting is a crises in the young persons life • Crises in themselves are threatening and threats activate attachment behaviour • During the admission period feelings of fear and insecurity are to the for the young person

• These feelings will be communicated through a young persons behaviours and provide on-going opportunities to evaluate the young person behaviour cues and to respond in a manner that expresses caring and elicits feelings of safety and comfort for the young person.

Attachment Theory • What is Attachment ? . Attachment is a special emotional relationship that involves an exchange of comfort, care and pleasure. • John Bowlby described Attachment as “lasting psychological connectedness between human beings (Bowlby , 1969, p. 194) • Bowlby shared that Psychoanalytic belief that early experiences in childhood have an important influence on development and behaviour later in life. • Early attachment styles are established in childhood through the infant / caregiver relationship. • In addition to this Bowlby believed that attachment had an evolutionary component , it aids in survival. “the propensity to make strong emotional bonds to particular individuals (is ) a basic component of human nature (Bowlby 1988. 3)

Characteristics of Attachment • Bowlby believed that there are 4 distinguishing characteristics of attachment. • Proximity Maintenance: The desire to be near the people we are attached to. • Safe Haven: Returning to the attachment figure for comfort and safety • Secure Base: The attachment figure acts as a base of security from which the child can explore the surrounding environment • Separation Distress; Anxiety that occurs in the absence of the attachment figure.

Attachment Styles- Mary Ainsworth • 1970 s Mary Ainsworth expanded on John Bowlby’s Attachment theories in her now famous “Strange Situation” Study. • The study involved observing children between the ages of 12 -18 months and how they responded to a situation in which they were briefly left alone and then reunited with their mother (Ainsworth , 1978) • Based on these observations , Mary Ainsworth concluded that there are 3 Major Styles of Atatchment: Secure Attachment, Ambivalent Insecure Attachment, and Avoidant Insecure attachment • Main & Solomon (1986) addaed a fourth attachment style known as Disorganised -Insecure Attachment. • Many Studies have supported Ainsworth’s conclusions and additional research has revealed that these early attachment styles can help to predict behaviours in later life

Characteristic of Securely Attachment Children • Children who are securely attached become “visibly upset when their caregiver leaves, and are happy when their parents return. • When frightened , these children will seek comfort from their parent /caregiver • Contact that is initiated by a parent is readily accepted by a securely attached child, and they greet the return of a parent/caregiver with positive behaviour. • While these children can be comforted to some extent by others they prefer the attention of the parent • Parents of securely attached children to play more with their children, respond more quickly to their children’s needs and are generally more responsive to their children than parents of insecurely attached children

Secure Attachment • Studies have shown that children that are securely attached to their caregiver are ; more empathic, during later stages of childhood, . These children are also described as less disruptive, less aggressive , and are more mature, than children with ambivalent or avoidant attachment styles • As Adults, those who are securely attached tend to have trusting, long lasting relationships. • Other Characteristics of securely attached children include ; having high self esteem, enjoy intimate relationships, seek out social support, and have an ability to share feelings with other people. • In one study ( Mc Carthy, G. 1999), found that women with a secure attachment style had more positive feelings about their adult romantic relationships than other women with insecure attachment styles

Characteristics of Ambivalent Children • Children who are Ambivalently attached” tend to be Suspicious of strangers, display considerable distress when separated from a caregiver/parent, but are not reassured by a parents return • In some cases the child might passively reject the parent by refusing comfort or may openly display direct aggression toward the parent • Cassidy& Berlin (1994), Ambivalent Attachement is relatively uncommon with only 7%- 15% of infants in the United States displaying this attachment style • Cassidy & Brelin also found that: Ambivalent Attachment is linked to low maternal availability • As these children grow older teachers describe them as “Clingy and overdependant”

• As Adults; ambivalent attached children seem to be reluctant about if their partner will reciprocate their feelings. This leads to frequent break ups often because the relationship feels cold and distant • These individuals feel especially distraught and the end ing of a relationship • Cassidy & Berlin (1994) also noted a pathological pattern that ambivalent attached parents tend to cling to young children as a source of security. • Other common characteristics include failure to support during stressful times , and an inability to share feelings, thoughts and emotions with partners.

Characteristics of Avoidant Children • Tend to avoid parents and caregivers. This avoidance seems to become pronounced after a prolonged period of absence. • These children may not reject attention from a parent , but neither do they seek contact or comfort • Children with avoidant attachment show no preference between a parent and a complete stranger.

Characteristics of Avoidant Attachment • As Adults , those with avoidant attachment tend to have difficulty with close and intimate relationships. • These individuals do not invest much into a relationship and experience little emotion when a relationship ends. • They often avoid intimacy by making excuses (such as long work hours) or may fantasise about other people during sex • Research by Feeney (1993) has also shown that adults with an avoidant attachment style are more likely to engage in casual sex.

Characteristics of Disorganised Attachment • Show a lack of clear attachment behaviour • Their actions and responses to caregivers are often a mix of behaviours , including avoidance or resistance. • These children are described as displaying dazed behaviour, sometimes either seeming confused or apprehensive in the presence of a caregiver • Main & Solomon (1986) proposed that inconsistent behaviour on the part of parents might be a contributing factor in this style of attachment. • In later research Main & Solomon (1986) argued that parents who act as figures of both fear and reassurance to a child contribute to disorganised style of attachment. Because the child feels frightened and comforted by the parent. Confusion Results.

Attachment Theory in Residential Care • Aristotle argues that happiness for humans is not possible in the absence of reciprocal relationships or friendships (Sherman 1991) • Such relationships for children are only possible if a secure base is provided for them to explore their environment (Bowlby 1988) • A secure base is a relationship within which a child or youth , feels safe , nourished both physically and emotionally , where s/he is comforted when distressed and reassured when frightened • Children placed in residential care often face a system that is problem focussed, intent on physical protection and control, wherewarm reciprocal relationships are not prioritised Graham etal, 2006)

Attachment: The Importance of Communication • Clear open communication is fundamental to the development of reciprocal relationships, which is to become the secure base for the child. Communication is a two way process. • Children tell us many things about themselves , on a daily basis , . mainly through their behaviour • The social care worker uses all available data to work on the young persons life space and to minimize the events that trigger expressive negative behaviour and maximize positive , responsive interactions. • Repeated experience of individualised responses to behavior will enable the young person to eventually feel protected and enable him/her to feel more open to positive suggestion from the social care worker

• An appropriate individualised response from the SCW will require him/her to be able to discern the presenting attachment strategy and to offer effective care giving in the different strategies

The “A” Strategy : (Insecure Attachment) • If the child’s attachment signals for protection and or comfort predictably result in an interfering or rejecting response from an primary attachment figure the child will not achieve the feeling of safety or comfort desired • This results in feelings of confusion and anxiety. • The child is biologically driven to seek safety and comfort from the primary attachment figure and so will continue to elicit feelings of fear and discomfort. • All attachment behaviour is accompanied by strong emotion (Bowlby, 1988) which is communicated through the use of affect • If the child repeatedly experiences a rejecting response to his affective signals, s/he will interpret this as a punishment for their behaviour and so will learn to inhibit the punished behaviour

• This can result in the child inhibiting affective signals in order to reduce maternal rejection or interference. • It teaches a child/young person that expression of affect is counterproductive in this relationship

Distinguishing Characteristics of the “A” Strategy • Predictable Environment: The predictable rejection of affective signals or disruptive emotional displays will result in the child organizing a self protective strategy around the expression of affect • Suppression of Affect: These children try to cope with distress by turning inwards. They expect rejection and tend to generate internal working models of others as being emotionally unavailable, untrustworthy, and rejecting and of the self as being unlovable and of low value. • Strong on Cognition: These children rely on cognition, and casual statements to guide mental functioning. . Negative feelings can be normalised to create the impression of belonging to somebody else. Idealisation can occur where the parent is all good and the self all bad or vice-versa.

Care Giving in Residential Care for the “A” Strategy Child/Young person • The child using an insecure avoidant strategy may withdraw in times of major distress or fear. The flight response. • While his behavior was adaptive with his primary attachment figure, it may not result in protection in a residential care setting • The SCW needs to recognize this child’s strategy and to devise a response that will not push the child further into his strategy , but to instead ensure that the child experiences safety in his /her environment • “A” Strategy children are vulnerable in residential care settings as they are less likely to be overly demanding and can be easily overlooked • If “A” strategy children feel threatened because their need for safety is reliably unmet then they are further at risk from avoiding the development of realtionships

• This is likely to be met in the development of behaviors characterised by levels of compulsion , compulsive caregiving where neglect is the threat, compulsive compliance where violence is the threat or compulsive self reliance where protection from dangerous caregivers is the threat (Crittenden, 1999) • The SCW must be aware of all children in their care and respecting their attachment strategies and devising tailored responses to their behavior cues aimed at ensuring safety and comfort in the presence of a secure base. • The aim is to modify the strategy rather than to reinforce it. • For “A” strategy children the SCW can use language to communicate concern and the provision of safety. Encourage discussion about relationships/experiences , clarify misunderstandings, with the aim to create feelings of safety.

• The provision of comfort can be more challenging for the SCW. • The SCW will have to recognize situational cues that cause discomfort and a response that aims to provide comfort in a wy that is acceptable and recognizable to the child. • The experience of safety and comfort over time will have the effect of enabling the young person to use their time in residential care as a secure base for exploration of solutions for the issues in his/her life

The “B” Strategy: (Secure : Balanced Attachment) • The child who experiences parenting which predictably offers protection and comfort. • Where attachment behavior is recognised for its good communication qualities and were emotions can be freely expressed. • Here trust develops and the child/young person feels safe that their primary attachment figure can be relied upon for safety and comfort • Through consistent responses to his affective signals (attachment behaviors) that restore safety and comfort the child builds a model of himself that s/he is of value. as well as accurate understanding that s/he is of value.

Distinguishing Characteristics of “B” strategy children • Predictable Environment: The child learns the predictive , communicative power of behavior where the anticipated , positive response to his affective behavior facilitates the development of trust, security and attachment (Fahlberg, 1991) • Presence of Safety and Comfort: The attachment relationship results in the child having their needs met. The balance and organisation that these children present is a result of growing up in an environment where things are as they should be • Ability to use Cognition and Affect accurately: “B” strategy children develop an ability to describe complex casual relationships and to assign personal responsibility. They reflect an understanding that people are motivated both by anticipated consequences and also feeling states (Crittenden 1999), which facilitates the development of high sociall empathy, and results in them co-operating , being more considerate and compassionate in their dealings with others.

• Use of Support: “B” Strategy children expect people to be positively disposed to them , which facilitates relationship development and enhancement of psychological support. • Control over Personal Environment: The ultimate aim of attachment is independence (Bowlby, 1997). The regular experience of the child/young persons attachment needs being met, positively effects his /her functioning

Care giving and the “B” Strategy Child • This child will be less challenging, but the residential care environment may be perceived as threatening • Through observation and recording of this child’s behaviors it will become clear how this child expresses his/her fears and anxieties. • The aim here is to maintain the child/young person balanced strategy by minimizing his feelings of fear and aiming to respond quickly and specifically to his attachment behaviors. • “B” strategy children are vulnerable at times of crises and can be pushed into either “C” or “A” strategy if their fears and feelings are not appropriately responded to during these challenging periods.

The “C” Strategy (Insecure Attachment) • The “C” Strategy child experiences an unpredictable environment. When feelings of discomfort trigger attachment behaviors, the child cannot rely on being predictably responded to by his/her primary attachment figure in a manner that achieves safety and or comfort. • On some occassions the Primary attachment figure is available to the child but on other occassions the attachment figures response does not result in comfort and in more severe situations the child neither receives comfort of safety. • This child cannot predict that outcome of his attachment behaviors. The result is that s/he becomes anxious about his safety and comfort • The one reliable experience is that consistent demanding behavior usually elicits some from the primary attachment figure.

• The level of anxiety and discomfort in the child’s environment results in a decreased ability to organize their social experience. • This interferes with the child’s ability to predict danger and s/he becomes pre-occupied with feelings.

Distinguishing Characteristics of the “C” Strategy • Unpredictable Care: To the “C” strategy child presenting a particular behavior can have different outcomes at different times. This makes it impossible for him/her to draw conclusions about their behavior. S/he does not develop trust in others and s/he cannot rely on others to provide safety and comfort. They experience parents as indeciseively loving which brings on feelings of frustration, dependence anger or fearfulness/ • Pre-occupation with Relationships: The attachment relationship is the medium through which the child learns to organize his model experience, form a self concept, cope with anxiety, and cope with relationships (Howe, 1995). The “C” strategy child is continuosly trying to make his insecure attachments more effective. External inconsistencies and contradictions become internalised which can result in feelings of confusion , anger, despair and are often expressed in difficult behavior. These children are unsure of their worth to others and his inability to trust others. They suffer from anxiety and low self esteem and confidence and relationships are racked by self doubt, uncertainty and ambivalence.

• High on Affect: The PAP in the “C” strategy relationship is often unavailable , inconsistent , insensitive, and may lack empathy which may cause the child to increase behaviors to attract the PAPs interest or maintain her presence. Because the child cannot rely on the mother’s availability he becomes vigilant, looking for any signs of unavailability. This causes the child to be in almost constant state of affective arousal which can be displayed through a tendency to laugh, cry, shout when such responses might be reasonably expected. Emotional boundaries can become blurred. Mood swings are common.

Care Giving and the “C” Strategy Child • The child has experienced unpredictability in the primary care-giving relationship. • The PAP failed to integrate positive, negative, good , bad. Her care giving could appear to be heightened but ineffective. Their is evidence of cognitive disconnection (George & Solomon 1999) • These factors cause confusion and ambivalence in the child. The attachment cues may be responded to but not in a way that produces safety and comfort. • During times of crises the child/young person is likely to exhibit behavior that is affectively expressively. This could be demanding and require interventions aimed at modifying it.

• However, if this child has not been able to gain understanding of cause and effect due to his unpredictable attachment relationship s/he will not benefit from a strict regime of behavior modification principles. • They will communicate readily through their behavior which must be observed and recorded to see the pattern in situational cues. • Failure to respond appropriately leads to the child becoming embedded in their behavior • The “C” strategy child needs a calm environment which needs to keep provoking events to a minimum.

THE Disorganised Attachment “D” STRATEGY • There is some dispute about the reliability of the disorganised “D” strategy. • A distinguishing characteristic of the “D” strategy is attachment behavior that is contradictory The following patterns , among others are observed in “D” strategy children: • Sequential display of contradictory behavior patterns (Strong proximity, seeking behavior followed immediately by a freeze or a dazed expression) • Simultaneous display of contradictory behavior patterns (child sitting uncomfortably on primary attachment figure’s lap while simultaneously ignoring the attachment figure’s repeated overtures). • Indicators of fear of parent (fearful expression, dashing away from parent)

• Researchers have established links between the “D” strategy and disrupted and disturbed patterns of care giving , relationship violence in childhood and adulthood. • There is also evidence to suggest that “D” strategy is associated with parents own unresolved experience of loss, separation, trauma, (Schuengal, C. et-al , 1999) • “D” strategy children demonstrate an absence of a coherent attachment strategy with respect to the attachment person • When fear is aroused the infant is faced with an unresolvable conflict with respect to seeking comfort from a frightened or frightening caregiver who is the only have of safety. They display “flight without resolution” (Main, 1995)

• Attachment disorganisation in infancy fortells controlling behaviors with caregivers, aggressive and fearful peer relations, internalising and externalising problems in pre-school and hightened problems in adolescents (Lyons-Ruth, K. and Jacobvitz, D. 1999)

Care Giving and the “D” Strategy Child. • This strategy presents in care-giving characterised by abdicated care giving. (George & Solomon 1999) • This care giving system is disabled by a sense of helplessnesson the part of the PAP. • Mothers of “D” strategy children struggle to maintain control. There is evidence of the mother experiencing fear (George & Solomon. 1999) • If the child’s history on admission into residential care suggests evidence of the mothers’ fear it will be important to establish the source of this fear as an essential factor in any aim to re-unite the child with his or her primary care-giver. • This relationship between mother and child needs to be observed during times of stress to isolate particular features that lead to attachment disorganisation.

• The mothers fear need to be understood in the context of the stressful events that de-regulate her and leave her feeling vulnerable, unprotected and helpless. • The mother’s helplessness results in her inability to respond to the child’s needs for a particular time period. • When the mother exhibits fear behavior this also frightens the child. The child attachment system becomes closed and the ability to seeks protection becomes blocked (George & Solomon , 1999) • This is clearly a dangerous condition for the child and needs urgent intervention. This most ideal intervention is one that involves the mother and the child • The intervention could be organised in the care giving system with the SCW working with the mother in her own home.

• Observation and recording of interaction between mother and child are critical to establish patterns and situational cues that trigger the mother’s fear. • Armed with this information the SCW aims to reduce theses triggers and keep attachment and caregiving systems open for reciprocal interaction. • In the process of this information the SCW could model responses that the mother could use. • When the young person has entered residential care , intervention requires planning with all information on the child at hand • A child using “D” strategy is in danger of becoming seriously disturbed so it is critical that the environment is managed effectively by SCWs who aim to keep attachment processes open and safe and comfort for a secure base to occur for the child

• Care givers of “D” Strategy children may benefit from additional expert guidance in the modification of this strategy.

Attachment - Conclusion • SCWs need to develop knowledge and strategies in decoding the way the child communicates their behavior and to give young people a second chance to develop attachment in residential care. • In times of crises children’s attachment behaviors are readily in evidence. • By recording these behaviors and situational cues where the trigger occurs SCWs can see evidence for particular attachment strategies. • This understanding facilitates individualised care for young people in residential care units. • The aim is to enhance these children’s levels of happiness through the experience of reciprocal warm relationships which provide for them a secure base from which to explore their world.

References • Ainsworth et-al (1978), Patterns of Attachment, Hillsdale, New Jersey, Eribaum • Bowlby, J. (1960/1982) Attachment and Loss Vol 1 Attachment. New York, Basic Bools. • Bowlby, J. (1978) The making and Breaking of Affectional Bonds, London. Tavistock. • Bowlby, J. (1988) The Secure Base, New York, Basic Books. • Critendon, P. (1990) Patterns of attachment in Adulthood. Unpublished training manual • Feeney, J et-al (1993) Adolescents Interactions and the Opposite Sex, Influence of Attachment Styles and Gender, Journal of Adolescence, 169 -189. • George, C. & Solomon. J. (1999) Atachment and Caregiving. Guildford Press. • Hazen, C, & Shaver , P. (1987) Romantic Love Conceptualised as an Attachment Process, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52, 511 -524. • Main, M. & Cassidy, J. (1988) , Categories of response to reunion with the parent at age 6; predictable from infant attachment classifications and stable over a 1 month period. Developmental Psychology, 24, 415 -426

References • Main, M. & Hesse, E. (1990) Parents unresolved traumatic experiences are related to infant disorganised attachment status: Is frightened/frightening behaviour the linking mechanism ? In M. Greenberg , et-al (Edition) Attachment in the Pre- School Years, Theory , Research and Intervention. 161 -182, Chicago, Ilanois, University of Chicago Press. • Main, M. & Solomon. J. (1986). Discovery of an insecure, disorganised/ disoriented attachment pattern. Procedures , findings, and implications for the classification of behaviour. In T. B. Brazeltonand M. Yogman(Eds) Affective Development in Infancy, 95 -124, Norwood, New Jersy, Ablex. • Mc Carthy, G. (1999), Attachment Style and Adult Love Relationships and Friendships: A study of a group of women at riskmof experiencing relationship difficulties, British Journal of Medical Psychoogy. Volume 72, number 3, September 1999, pp 305 -321.

Role Of The Social Care worker • Social Care is a profession where people work in partnership with those who experience marginalization or disadvantage or who have special needs. • Social care practitioners may work with children, adolescents in residential care, people with learning or physical disabilities, people who are homeless or who suffer with alcohol or drug dependence, as well as families in the communities , older people or recent immigrants to ireland. • The Irish Association of Social Care Educators (IASCE) define Social Care as : “ a profession committed to the planning and delivery of quality care and other support services for individuals with identified needs • It has been more formally defined as “the professional provision of care, protection, support , welfare and advocacy for vulnerable or dependent clients, individually or in groups. This is achieved through the planning and evaluation of individual and group programmes of care, which are based on needs , identified where possible in conjunction with clients and delivered through day to day shared life experiences. All interventions are based on established best practice and in-depth knowledge of lifespan development.

Qualities of the Social Care Worker • Has a broad knowledge of their chosen field • The ability to work independently and as part of a team • Display qualities of trust, empathy , compassion. maturity, and be open to exploring their own triggers that could hinder their work with clients , self awareness • Be open minded and be able to examine or even change their own attitude towards others • Social Care work can be very challenging , emotionally as well as physically and can mean working in very difficult environmens, but it can also be extremely rewarding.

What is the difference between a Social Care Worker and a Social Worker • SCW typically work in the day to day direct person to person capacity with users of services • They will seek to provide a caring stable environment in various social , educational, and relationship interventions can take place in the day to day living space of the service user. • Social Workers role is typically to manage the case , for example by arranging residential placements and child care reviews , and negotiating when the placement will be terminated.