ARISTOTLE Background PLATO The forms patterns or ideals
ARISTOTLE: Background PLATO: The forms [patterns or ideals] are not this world and can only be known through a process of education – n Thus morality is based on the highest knowledge available only to a few. ARISTOTLE: The “forms” [or patterns] that enable us to understand objects don’t exist apart from particular objects. n Thus morality is not based on a "good" independent of experience, but on experience itself.
ARISTOTLE: What He Asks Aristotle asks: What do people desire? He says we desire an end that is: selfsufficient, final, attainable n According to Aristotle this end can only be HAPPINESS. n And happiness can only be explained in terms of our capacity for reason.
How ARISTOTLE Classifies Knowledge & Human Activities Theoretical Sciences -- include Metaphysics, Physics and Mathematics Productive /Practical Sciences -- are those where reason serves human beings. n Productive Sciences -- involve "know-how" and cover many crafts, including art. n Practical Science or ETHICS -- Here humans are AGENTS rather than producers. q The "end" of the “Practical Science is not a product, but the living of a certain kind of life.
Aristotle’s Starting Assumptions Every activity has its proper end at which it aims. ["end in itself"] Politics is the "master art" -- why? Who should practice it? Contemporary relevance? Different ”Sciences" will have different levels of precision. n Ethics, dealing with opinions, will not have the same kind of precision as mathematics. n The best judge of the appropriate precision is a person educated in that subject.
Happiness is the aim of Human Existence Aristotle thought that there was agreement among people that the ultimate human good is happiness. Why? [what is Aristotle assuming about human interests? n It is FINAL [is that for which everything else is done] n It is SELF-SUFFICIENT [by itself it makes life desirable] n It is ACHIEVABLE BY ACTION [attainable]
Aristotle’s Definition of Happiness The "function of man" is an activity of the soul that follows a rational principle. Aristotle’s definition relies on his analysis of the soul and the Greek definition of virtue n n VIRTUE is the appropriate excellence for an activity -- What that activity aims at. [ virtue = being good at ____ for the Greeks] Thus HAPPINESS [as the goal or "excellence" of human life] is "activity of the soul in accord with virtue"
Reason, the Human Soul and Virtue The human soul has two elements. 1. Rational [grasps a rule or principle] 2. Irrational The rational part has two functions n The exercise of reason for its own sake. n The control of the irrational part 2 kinds of virtue parallel the functions of reason. n Intellectual Virtues: consist of instruction & knowledge - the "virtues of intellect" n Moral Virtues: consist of practical actions & habits of choice. - the "virtues of character"
Aristotle argues that Virtue is a “State of Character” involving the "Mean" According to Aristotle the human personality has three elements: n Passions n Faculties n States of character. The passions and faculties [abilities] are not blameworthy or praiseworthy in themselves Thus Virtue must be a state of character. n Virtue makes a man good n Virtue makes him do his own work well.
Aristotle argues that Virtue is a “State of Character” involving the "Mean" n Every activity has an excess and a defect. q q n The master of an art avoids the extremes BUT the "mean" or balance is relative to each of us In summary: virtue is a state of character, lying in a mean relative to us, which is determined by a rational principle.
Examples of Virtues and the "Mean" Excess Mean Defect rashness vanity self-indulgence courage cowardliness proper pride undue humility temperance 'insensible'
The Two Kinds of Intellectual Virtue Practical Wisdom: [deals with variable things]. Here the reasoning must be true and the desire right if the choice is to be good Philosophical Wisdom: [deals with invariable things] Contemplative in nature. Not practical nor productive. The origin of Moral Action is in CHOICE. n Choice cannot exist without reason or intellect, or without a moral state of character. n Good action cannot exist without intellect and character.
Aristotle believes that Philosophic Wisdom is superior because The activity of reason offers pleasures that are: n Pure and enduring n Self-sufficient. n Are leisurely. . . Question: Is this a life that humans can aspire to?
The Ethics of Character The example of Le Chambon: n Their goodness is not Kantian or utilitarian. It came from the kind of people they were. For Aristotle the question isn’t “How should I act? ”, but “What kind of a person should I be? ” n n This is a focus on CHARACTER rather than ACTION Aristotle argues that in ethics we need good PERSONS as well as good ACTIONS
The Clash between Duty & Inclination We can understand Aristotle as an attempt to reconcile duty & inclination/reason & emotion n This is unlike Kant where the divide between reason & emotion is a key element of his ethical theory. Aristotle makes a distinction between a temperate & a continent person. n The temperate person does what is right because they WANT to [from the heart] n The continent person does what is right, but doesn’t necessarily want to. [from the head]
Kant & Utilitarianism Both Kant’s ethics and Utilitarianism maintain the split between head & heart. For KANT: n The moral person is close to the “continent” person. UTILITARIANISM: n Motives aren’t a factor in the “hedonic calculus. ” n And everyone’s emotions count equally. n If anything OUR emotions are given less weight.
TEXT: The Structure of Virtues IAccording to Aristotle virtue is n n a habit or disposition of the soul [not inborn, but acquired] involving both feeling and action [not only action, but certain kinds of feelings] to seek the mean in all things relative to us where the mean is defined through reason as the prudent man would define it. [this reflects the need for both principles and persons]
TEXT: Aristotle on Virtue II n In Aristotle’s discussion of virtue the emphasis is on CHARACTER [as a result of habits of behavior and perception], rather than individual actions He asks what life with or without a certain virtue‘s mean, excess or defect would be like?
Two Virtues: Courage & Compassion COURAGE: A lack of courage can interfere with reaching our goals. n Courage rests on “rightly ordering” our fears & an accurate assessment of risk as well as “proper confidence. ”
Two Virtues: Courage & Compassion COMPASSION: Compassion is part of recognizing the suffering of others as suffering. Compassion always involves the desire to do something. [whether possible or not] Compassion involves “moral imagination” n Compassion takes us beyond the rules. n Yet we still need good judgment. Compassion implies moral equality/pity implies inequality.
The Virtue of “Self-Love” Love, whether of self or other, wants to see the object of the love flourish. n Self-love involves both feelings and behaving/ acting towards ourselves in certain ways as well as self-knowledge n Love is not unconditionally positive -- it involves doing what you need to do to flourish. The excess [arrogance, conceit etc. ] and deficiency [self-deprecation, self-effacing etc…] interfere with your flourishing. n Proper self-love is very important in friendship.
How does “Practical Wisdom” work? Practical Wisdom involves “the reflective and affective application of a general disposition to right action of some kind. ” [huh? ] Translation: A particular virtue [that is part of your moral character] and your conception of the “good life” come together in a certain situation guiding you to form a judgment [practical wisdom] about what you should do.
In Closing … Aristotle says you can’t have one virtue without the others - there is a reciprocity. n This is because virtues are connected both with practical wisdom and with human flourishing. Finally: An ethics of character helps other moral theories apply rules sensitively and, through practical wisdom, is able to balance the competing claims of utility & rights etc.
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