ARISTOTLE ARISTOTLE 384 322 B C n Founder

ARISTOTLE

ARISTOTLE (384 -322 B. C. ) n Founder of every science or domain of study known to humans Physics n Chemistry n Biology n Metaphysics n Metereology n Logic n Literary Criticism Anthropology Ethics Political science Psychology

Original contributions to philosophy after Aristotle Augustine – Theory of the Will Thomas d’Aquino – Phil. of Human Nature Hegel – Dialectic, elaboration of Aristotle Marx – Political Economy & Social Psychology – first major advance beyond Aristotle - but based on Aristotle, - called «the Aristotle of the 19 th century» Heidegger – Phenomenology – Aristotelian psychology

Modernists reject Aristotle n Descartes – his skepticism became basis of individualistic exploitation of community n Locke – skepticism leads to theory of property rejecting Aristotle’s understanding of individual within community n Smith – complete rejection of Aristotle’s theory of moral economy – Bush-style free enterprise

ARISTOTLE (384 -322 B. C. ) n born Macedonia 15 yrs after d. of Socrates n student at Plato’s Academy at age 17 n Collaborates with Plato on dialogues n - disagreed over essential realities of our world n - Forms vs. Substances (living organisms) n Leaves Academy after Plato’s death n pursues research in biology n Tutor of Alexander n Founds Lyceum in Athens (334 BC)

Raphael, The School at Athens. Vatican museums.

Nicomachean Ethics n Reading next 2 weeks

The complete ‘good’ (NE i. 7—key chapter) n - ‘what is intrinsically worth pursuing is more complete than what is worth pursuing for something else’ n - the ‘intrinsically choiceworthy’ n ‘most chiceworthy of all things’ n - ‘self-sufficient’ n = Happiness (eudaimonia), but this is ‘commonplace’—what does it mean?

Happiness (eudaimonia) n Eudaimonia n ‘living well, ’ ‘doing well’ n ‘Not a state’ of mind (EN x. 6), ‘an activity rather than a state’ n So Aristotle doesn’t mean the way you feel eating ice cream or going shopping n Aristotle: Maybe, we can understand happiness if we understand function of human

Aristotle on function (ergon) in general n ‘Everything is defined by its ergon and capacity’ (Politics, Bk. i, ch. 2. 1253 a 23) n Ergon = function, work, product n Homonymous n E. g. , function (ergon) of house builder is to build houses (product= ergon) for other members of the community: this is her/his work (ergon).

Aristotle on function (ergon)— cont. n E. g. , a doctor is the ergon he actualizes: n it is easy, Aristotle says, to know various remedies for illness, but how to dispense them and to whom and when, ‘that much a function (ergon) is what it is to be a doctor’ (NE v. 9. 1137 a 16). n If something loses its function, ceases to be. n An eye that loses capacity to see no longer an eye, except homonymously

What is function of human being? (NE i. 7) n Functions of craftsmen n Flute player, carpenter, doctor n Not function of individual parts, or function(s) we share with animals or plants n Function of living thing involves activity (energeia), the actuality of living n = activity of the soul or life-principal (psuche) n Since reason distinctive of humans, ‘function of human involves activity in accord w. reason’

n Function performed well if performed in accordance with virtue of the thing n E. g. , knife, goat n Conclusion about happiness n ‘the human good turns out to be activity of soul in accord with virtue’ n Let’s examine the parts of this statement: n n ‘Soul’ (Psuche) ‘Virtue’ (arete)

Psuche = ‘soul’ or ‘life-force’ n Nothing to do with religion n Greek belief that all living things possess some life principal or force n Plants, animals, humans – all have soul, but differ in capacities n Ensouled things are substances. n Psuche is form of the thing n What does it mean to say soul is ‘form’?

Form and matter n Aristotle says everything that exists in our world is a composite of form and matter n Form is nature or whatness of a thing n Example of bronze sphere, as teaching tool to introduce more advanced case of form as soul.

Form & matter II n The form sphere provides shape for bronze scrap to be worked into bronze sphere. n Sphere is whatness of bronze sphere. n Soul understood by its capacities, i. e. , what organism can do.

Capacities of psuche n Nutritive – shared with plants & animals n Perceptual & locomotive – shared w animals n Intellective/rational – distinctly human n For happiness to be human, must involve exercise of intellective/rational capacity n Aristotle says people who do not live by intellect cannot be happy (EN x. 9)

Intellective capacity n Activity (energeia) of Intellective capacity is form- generating & form-perceiving. n Same forms that are nature or whatness of things are forms in intellect by which we perceive those things. n We acquire forms through experience with things that embody them. n E. g. , bronze sphere embodies form ‘sphere’.

Aristotle rejects skepticism n So, Aristotle argues that knowledge is based on an identity between the knower and the known. n That is one result of his theory that all things are composites of form and matter. n Ergo, Aristotle rejects skepticism of Descartes.

Virtue n Remember Aristotle’s definition of happiness: ‘activity/actuality of soul in accord with virtue’ n He adds: ‘and if there are more virtues than one, then in accord with best and most complete virtue’ (i. 7) n Cf. list of virtues, right column last table n n Best and most complete virtue is JUSTICE.

Justice n “Justice is the only virtue that seems to be another person’s good, for it is related to another, for it does what benefits another” (EN 1130 a 3 -4). n Justice not a matter of fairness, but rather of helping another.

Justice in economic relations n Primary example of justice in Aristotle’s theory of exchange: n a person wealthier or more powerful helps another in their mutual exchange of goods, s/he loses money to the other in the transaction.

Conclusion: what is happiness? n Happiness is fulfillment of the human function of activity of soul in accordance with the virtue of justice to benefit others as much as I am able.