Aristotle 384 322 BCE What is Virtue PHIL

Aristotle (384 -322 BCE): What is Virtue? PHIL 1003 Semester I 2008 -09

Tutorials Tutor: Arthur Chin arthurchin 2@yahoo. com. hk Week of: • 1 st: Sept 29 th - Oct 3 rd • 2 nd: Oct 20 th - 24 th • 3 rd: Nov 10 th - 14 th • 4 th: Nov 24 - 28 th

Answer to question: What causes downfall of Plato’s best regime? • Inevitable degeneration of best regime (Rep. , 546 a-e); • Fault of imperfect matings: how can this happen? – Platonic numerology and astrology; – Calculate the ‘number’ for a human creature; no one understands it! – Matings out of sync with this number; • Result: children fall short of ideal; • Classes become mixed, no more pure golds; • Passionate pursue their ambitions, creating oligarchy – rule of the few in their own self-interest.

Aristotle’s Contributions • Major ethical theorist; • Major political thinker; – theorist of democracy: qualified approval – Cf. Platonic critique of democracy = rule of the worst elements; • Biologist; • Used scientific method to analyze political institutions; • Logic = the ‘organon’, or tool.

Aristotle’s life • 384 BCE born in Stagira (Macedonia) – therefore could not become an Athenian citizen; • Son of a court physician, Nicomachus; • 367 -347 studied in Plato’s Academy, Athens • 347 Plato dies; Aristotle in Assos, Mytilene and Macedonia; – In Asia Minor studies marine organisms; • 342 tutors the Macedonian prince, Alexander; – little discernible influence • 335 returns to Athens, founds Lyceum; • 322 dies in Chalcis.

Ancient Greece

School of Athens by Raphael (16 th cent. )

What this picture illustrates Plato pointing at sky, Aristotle at earth. Why?

Aristotle’s Method • Empirical and concrete: based in biology – Make observations of phenomena – Draw conclusions on that basis • Social and ethical questions: examine actual views on an issue or topic; • Find out what the telos, or goal of sth is; • That will tell you its nature, and • What its good is.

An acorn’s telos

Aristotle’s idea of The Good • No one good or Form of the Good (cf. Plato) • Many goods—the good of each thing, organism, person, e. g. – The good of cats – The good of trees – The good of…. • The good is determined by examining its nature • We understand the nature of a thing by looking at its goal or telos

Hierarchy Central idea to ethics and politics of both Plato and Aristotle.

What Plato and Aristotle share: soul -society analogy Plato Soul: 3 pts: – reason, – passion – desires Society: 3 pts: rulers, guardians people Aristotle Soul: 2 pts: reason desires Society: 2 pts: rulers (rotation among citizens) ruled: citizens and others

Aristotle’s view of the soul Reason Desires

Aristotle’s Hierarchy of Beings • 3 kinds of soul: – Vegetative: plants – Sensitive (having senses): animals – Rational and active: man These ideas still used in the 17 th century by Descartes. What is unique to man is reasoning ability and his highest good/goal/telos is to exercise that ability in action. Plants and animals have different goals than man because they have different natures/souls.

Hierarchy of goods, sciences • Critique of Plato’s Form of the Good (1096 a 15) – Not one good, but many • Good of city at top of ‘hierarchy of goods’ – Good of individual subordinate (NE, 1. 2) – Why? • Not one science of good, but many (1096 a 30) • Controlling science = political science – All other sciences subordinate—generalship, household mgmt, rhetoric – Why?

What is the Good for man? • For sake of which we do things • Many of our activities are instrumental, only means to the end • Characteristics of the Good for man: – Complete – Self-sufficient – Choiceworthy (having merit) – Active

The Good = happiness, but what is happiness? • Is it doing well or living well? • Is it the opposite of whatever state in which one finds oneself? • Is it freedom from pain? • Many believe it is gratification of desire, or – – Honor, being admired, respected Wealth—”not the good we are seeking” (1096 a) Health Having fun • Many of these, e. g. wealth, health, are instruments we use to pursue the good.

“…the human good turns out to be… the soul’s activity that expresses virtue” (NE, 1098 a 20)

You are not born virtuous; You must become virtuous.

Virtue • Everything has a virtue • Virtue means acting well, in accordance with one’s nature; – Slaves, – plants, – animals, – humans all have virtues; • Man’s particular virtue = acting from reason, for his community (polis).

Virtue • • • The end of man is to act virtuously; Virtue is an activity; It makes us happy Virtue of character; We can become habituated to it through repetition of fine actions • Education in virtue is necessary.

The Virtues • Virtue entails action: – Even philosophy is action, and therefore virtuous • Mean between extremes of behavior: • Examples: – – Courage: mean b/w foolish risk-taking and cowardice Generosity: mean b/w avarice and profligacy Truthfulness: b/w boastfulness and self-depreciation Even-temperedness: b/w short temper and apathy

The question is not: What is virtue? BUT How to become good (Bk 2. 2)

What is ethics? Moral virtue (ēthikē) derived from habits (ethos)

So what is really central: How your habits are formed; do you have a good upbringing or a bad one, do you live in a city w/ good laws or bad ones? (Bk 2. 1 -2)

Forming habits: Music and Censorship Plato • Music: Phrygian harmonia; • Dorian for courage • Censor poetry, b/c poetry attributes responsibility for evil to god (Rep. , 378 a, 380 b-c). Aristotle (Pol. , Bk 7) • Music: Lydian harmonia • Avoid performing music b/c it is shared with slaves or other subordinates • Censor lewd dramas-bad for children.

Preferred instrument (children only): the Kithara [lyre]

A base instrument: the Auloi [Pipes]

Any contemporary examples? How are children’s habits formed today?

Can you be virtuous under a bad regime? What do you think?

Question • In Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle argues that a child can not be truly happy because "age prevents him from doing [things acquired by virtue]. . . and happiness requires both complete virtue and a complete life" (1100 a). • During my childhood I can recall times where I felt completely happy even though I was not virtuous or of the age of complete life. • Do you agree or disagree with Aristotle's views on happiness for a child? Why/Why not?