Argument Terms English II Fall 2017 Persuasion Argument

Argument Terms English II Fall 2017

Persuasion / Argument Purpose ▪ To negotiate ▪ To mediate ▪ To remove roadblocks and work towards agreement. ▪ To reach a mutually beneficial agreement ▪ Not necessarily “to win” ▪ Recognizing and applying argument parts and persuasive techniques will help you be a better writer, student, and citizen.

Issue ▪ Definition: The topic being debated or argued ▪ Examples: Homework, social media, self-identity, gun control, animal testing, school uniforms, school parking

Claim ▪ Definition: The overall stance or position on a debatable issue (the side you are taking) ▪ Example: ▪ The high school is responsible for making sure every student has an assigned parking spot (issue) on school grounds.

Reason ▪ Definition: General statements that back up claims; these identify why the writer’s view on an issue is reasonable or correct. ▪ Example(s): ▪First, students need an assigned parking spot (claim) so that they can easily go from school to athletic activities without losing their spot and being late for class because they can’t find anywhere to park(reason). ▪Second, sleep ▪Third, we have the $

Support ▪ Definition: Includes facts, statistics, expert opinions, examples, and personal experiences— these are presented in support of the claim as concrete examples to help demonstrate how the claim and reasons hold up (also called evidence/data). ▪ Example: ▪First, students need an assigned parking spot (claim) so that they can easily go from school to athletic activities without losing their spot and being late for class because they can’t find anywhere to park(reason). A poll conducted by the 2016 AP Stats class found that: “ 92% of the junior class had difficulty finding a parking space in the 2015 -16 school year, and 54% of them received a tardy because of parking. ” (support)

Justification ▪ Definition: Explanation of the support and connection to the claim and reason (explaining why the support chosen matters) ▪ Example: ▪First, students need an assigned parking spot (claim) so that they can easily go from school to athletic activities without losing their spot and being late for class because they can’t find anywhere to park(reason). A poll conducted by the 2016 AP Stats class found that: “ 92% of the junior class had difficulty finding a parking space in the 2015 -16 school year, and 54% of them received a tardy because of parking. ” (support) Clearly, students had a difficult time finding parking, therefore arriving to class late and already stressed because there weren’t enough spots. Assigned spots would eliminate this issue. (justification) ▪ Look for phrases like: to sum up, in conclusion, simply put, clearly, the fact is, after all, surely, naturally

Qualification ▪ Definition: ▪ To limit a claim to make the argument plausible (possible) ▪ To make a claim more specific so that it can be defended ▪ Qualifiers are words like “some” or “many” or “most” or “often” etc that differentiate a fact or claim from concepts such as “all” or “always”.

Why qualify? ▪ Qualifiers are essential for two reasons: ▪ 1) They clarify claims and make them more factually accurate. ▪“smoking causes cancer” (factually inaccurate) ▪ “smoking often causes cancer. ” (often is the qualifier) ▪ “heavy long term smoking significantly raises the risk of developing many types of cancer. ” (most specific = best) ▪ 2) They help us persuade those who disagree with our claim. We tend not to trust (ethos) those entirely devoted to a single perspective in any debate where there are clearly competing perspectives. the smaller the claim, the more likely I can prove it or persuade others to believe it.

Qualification Example ▪ Claim: All freshmen at the University of Iowa should be required to live on campus. ▪ This claim is problematic because I know that some students for medical/religious reasons need to live off campus, and this is the first thing my opposition will say. To qualify my claim I need to limit it to make my argument reasonable and able to be proven: ▪ Revised claim: All freshmen, except for those with medical/religious exemptions, should be required to live on campus.

Qualify the following claims in your groups: 1) The high school is responsible for making sure every student has an assigned parking spot on school grounds. 1) Cell phones should be banned at all public schools. 1) Students should be required to take 3 years of foreign language in high school. 1) All students should have P. E. daily to prevent obesity. 1) Health care should be free for all in America.

Counterclaim ▪ Definition: A claim made by the opposing viewpoint (the opposition’s argument) ▪ Look for transitional phrases like: some people believe, one argument is, yet many people, another common argument by critics is, but, conversely, even though, in contrast, rather, alternatively, instead, nevertheless , while

CC Example First, students need an assigned parking spot (claim) so that they can easily go from school to athletic activities without losing their spot and being late for class because they can’t find anywhere to park(reason). A poll conducted by the 2016 AP Stats class found that: “ 92% of the junior class had difficulty finding a parking space in the 2015 -16 school year, and 54% of them received a tardy because of parking. ” (support) Clearly, students had a difficult time finding parking, therefore arriving to class late and already stressed because there weren’t enough spots. Assigned spots would eliminate this issue. (justification). However, some administrators have claimed that parking at the school is a “privilege not a right”(CC)

Response to CC (rebuttal) ▪ Definition: Support provided by the writer /speaker that addresses and proves the counterclaim wrong or ineffective ▪ Look for transition words/phrases like: however, nevertheless, but, on the other hand, yet, still, on the contrary

Rebuttal Example First, students need an assigned parking spot (claim) so that they can easily go from school to athletic activities without losing their spot and being late for class because they can’t find anywhere to park(reason). A poll conducted by the 2016 AP Stats class found that: “ 92% of the junior class had difficulty finding a parking space in the 2015 -16 school year, and 54% of them received a tardy because of parking. ” (support) Clearly, students had a difficult time finding parking, therefore arriving to class late and already stressed because there weren’t enough spots. Assigned spots would eliminate this issue. (justification). However, some administrators have claimed that parking at the school is a “privilege not a right”(CC), but public school is a right of all American citizens, therefore they need to make sure there is room for every student (rebuttal)

3 Persuasive Appeals (Aristotle): Ethos, pathos, logos Ethos (Credibility), or ethical appeal, means convincing by the character of the author or sources ▪ Use your reputation (if you are an expert) or the reputation of others as a basis for the argument (research experts)

Pathos (Emotional) means persuading by appealing to the reader's emotions. ▪ Pathos can cause a mood change, make an audience more receptive to logic, and get them committed to your goal ▪ Emotions commonly used to persuade: ▪ anger, patriotism, emulation (role model), humor

Logos ● Logos (Logical) means persuading by the use of reasoning. ● Argument by logic ● Facts, statistics, data, proof, expert witnesses --Aristotle believed that to have an effective argument – you must use all three (character, emotion, and logic)

Ethos, Pathos, or Logos?

Ethos, Pathos, or Logos

Ethos, Pathos, or Logos?

Ethos, pathos, or logos?

Audience (3 types) Note: all arguments need ETHOS to be effective, the amount of pathos/logos depends on purpose and audience ▪ 1. Neutral Audience: is indifferent or doesn't care about the topic ▪Argument should have a lot of pathos to get audience to care ▪ 2. Hostile Audience: disagrees with you immediately, not willing to hear or read what you have to say ▪ Argument should address counterclaims and provide may rebuttals early to address criticisms ▪ 3. Uninformed Audience: doesn’t know much about your topic ▪ Argument should be balanced (pathos/logos and at least one CC/rebuttal

Evaluating an Argument Not all arguments are equally credible. How do we tell the difference between one that’s trustworthy and one that’s just manipulating us? 1. Is it FAIR? Is it a topic that actually had opposing sides that can be debated? Does it present multiple valid points of view? Does it address counterclaims with appropriate rebuttals? Does the writer include all the major components of the issue (or ignore some)?

Evaluating an Argument How could you make these claims fair? “No one who likes country music should be allowed to live. ” “Scientists have been working on ways to cure cancer. ” How could our sample argument about parking be written in an UNfair way?

Evaluating an Argument 2. Is it EFFECTIVE? Is it fair and balanced? Does the author use appeals that are appropriate for the audience type? Consider the publication, issue, and date -- would people who are likely to read this argument be influenced by it? Does the author convince you and address your questions? How could the author of the parking sample argument ensure that the argument is effective?

Evaluating an Argument 3. How could the argument be stronger? Would it benefit from better sources? - clearly identified more recent / relevant more respected Would it benefit from more pathos or logos? Does the author give enough support? counterclaims? Does the author need to establish ethos?

▪ “Qualifying Claims. ” University of Idaho, www. webpages. uidaho. edu/eng 207 td/qualifying_claims. htm ▪ Toulmin argument: https: //web. cn. edu/kwheeler/docu ments/Toulmin. pdf.