Approaches 1 Origins of psychology Learning approaches Cognitive

Approaches: 1 Origins of psychology Learning approaches Cognitive approaches

AQA specification The Approaches unit is assessed in Paper 2 alongside Research Methods and Biopsychology Origins of Psychology: Wundt, introspection and the emergence of Psychology as a science. The basic assumptions of the following approaches: Learning approaches: the behaviourist approach, including classical conditioning and Pavlov’s research, operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research; social learning theory including imitation, identification, modelling, vicarious reinforcement, the role of mediational processes and Bandura’s research. The cognitive approach: the study of internal mental processes, the role of schema, the use of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes. The emergence of cognitive neuroscience.

Origins of Psychology Wundt Introspection Emergence of psychology as a science

Wundt (1832 -1920) • Introduced Psychology as a distinct Science. • Opened the first Psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany (1879). • Interested in conscious experience and he trained himself and others to describe their experiences using introspection (literally looking inside). • observe our inner world. • The person gains knowledge about his or her own mental and emotional states

Wundt: Scientific • Wundt carried out his studies under controlled conditions. • He trained assistants in the use of introspection so that they reported their experiences in a structured way. • He used the same stimuli, surroundings and instructions for each person. • Significance: marked the separation of modern scientific psychology from its broader philosophical roots

Wundt: Evaluation • Introspection is useful- Introspection has not been entirely abandoned. • Research was seen as a forerunner to the later scientific approaches. • Lack of Reliability - Wundts method relies on non-observable responses. Introspections experimental results are not easily replicated and therefore there is a distinct lack of reliability in these methods. • Introspection is not accurate- Nisbett and Wilson (1977) argue that we actually have very little knowledge of the processes underlying our behaviour which therefore conflicts with the values of introspection.

Emergence of psychology as a science 1900: Behaviourists: rejected Introspection 1930’s: Behaviourist scientific approach dominated psychology (e. g. Skinner) 1950’s: Cognitive approach: used scientific procedures to make inferences about mental processes 1990’s: Biological approach: brain scanning techniques

Learning approaches The behaviourist approach, including classical conditioning and Pavlov’s research, operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research

Assumptions • We are born as a blank slate – a ‘tabula rasa’ – everything we become is shaped by the process of learning from our environment. • Extreme ‘nurture’ end of nature-nurture debate. • Argues that in order for psychology to be scientific it should focus on observable behaviour which can be objectively measured, rather than on things like cognitive processes which can only be inferred – rejected the idea of introspection! • Lab experiments are the best way to achieve this! • Behaviourists also assume that humans are like any other organism in how they develop therefore animals can be studied to draw conclusions about humans.

Behaviourism has two main forms of learning Classical conditioning Operant conditioning & reinforcement

Classical Conditioning - Pavlov Learning through association…

How does it work? Before conditioning Bell: Neutral stimulus (NS) Food: unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Salivation: unconditioned Response (UCR) During conditioning Pairing + After conditioning Bell: Neutral stimulus (NS) Food: unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Salivation: unconditioned Response (UCR) Bell: Conditioned stimulus (CS) Salivation: Conditioned response (CR) How might this be used to learn/condition a fear?

Operant Conditioning – Skinner Learning through consequences Learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate in their environment

Consequences for behaviour Positive reinforcement : Anything which has the effect of increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences that are pleasant when they happen i. e. food for the rat/pigeon. Giving a child sweets when they clean their room. Negative reinforcement : Anything which has the effect of increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences that are pleasant when they stop. Aspirin to get rid of a headache. In simple terms, it is behaviour that makes something unpleasant go away. Punishment : Anything which has the effect of decreasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences that are unpleasant when happen

Evaluation: behaviourist • Hard Determinism/environmental determinism: The behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned. (ignores free-will) • Many critics of the behaviourist approach have questioned the ethics of conducting such investigations with animals. • Mechanistic view of individuals as machine like respondents to the environment. • The principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real-world behaviours and problems. (token economy systems) • The behaviourist approach has scientific credibility.

Learning approaches Social learning theory including imitation, identification, modelling, vicarious reinforcement, the role of mediational processes and Bandura’s research.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Mind-Behaviour-Environment The cognitive processes involved in learning. BEHAVIOURISM COGNITIVE FOCUS ON HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IN RESPONSE TO REWARD/PUNISHMENT FOCUS ON THE INTERNAL MENTAL PROCESS BETWEEN STIMULUS AND RESPONSE

Main assumptions • Behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning which involves modelling, imitation, identification and vicarious reinforcement. • The consequences of others behaviour is observed and this informs predictions and guides future behaviours (vicarious reinforcement) • Mediational processes occur between stimuli (model behaves) and response cognitive processes include attention, retention (memory) and decision making.

What is the Social Learning Theory? Developed by Bandura Learning occurs through: Modeling Observational learning Imitation SLT take into account cognitive thought processes. These mental factors mediate in the learning process to determine if a response is acquired

Bandura (1977) 4 mediational processes to social learning Attention – learning can only take place if a model is attended to. More attention is paid to models we identify with or who have status. (cognitive) Retention – behaviour we have observed is stored in memory. (cognitive) Motor reproduction – some of the behaviour that has been learnt will be imitated. (behavioural) Motivational processes – the expectation that behaviour will be rewarded encourages that behaviour to be reproduced. No consequences can also lead to imitation of behaviour. Punishment reduces the likelihood of imitation. The consequences can be direct or vicarious (cognitive).

We are more likely to imitate behaviour if the model we are observing is: Same age Same gender High social status Respected/admired

Application of Social Learning Theory Jane dyes her hair red because her favourite celebrity has done so. First Jane paid attention to what the celebrity had done Jane then retained this information Jane was capable of reproducing the behaviour of dying her hair Jane was motivated to dye her hair red and did so.

Vicarious reinforcement • Bandura stated that we are influenced not just by the behaviour, but by the consequences for the person we are observing. • We observe and learn about behaviour by watching others being reinforced or punished (vicarious reinforcement) • learning NOT a result of direct reinforcement, rather an individuals observation of another person’s experiences

SLT: application to media violence Children observe and learn from role models Live models (family, friends) Symbolic models (through media: TV, films, games) • They learn which behaviours are worth repeating • They have a mental representation of events they observe, and can anticipate reward and punishment.

Core study Bandura, Ross ans Ross (1961) https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=zer. CK 0 l. Rjp 8 Aim: To investigate whether exposure to a real-life aggressive model increases aggression in children.

Method:

Method: Stage one of the experiment children were brought individually to the experimental room by the experimenter. The room was set out for play The model was invited to come in. The child was placed in a corner of the room and shown how to design a picture The model was taken to the opposite corner (containing a table, chair, tinker toy, mallet and a 5 foot inflatable bobo doll. The children could only watch the model.

In the non-aggressive condition, the model ignored Bobo and assembled the tinker-toys in a quiet, gentle manner. In the aggressive condition the model began by assembling the tinker-toys, but after one minute turned to Bobo and was aggressive to the doll in a very stylised and distinctive way. After ten minutes the experimentered and took the child to a new room. Stage two of the experiment There, the child was given toys to play with, which were eventually taken away.

Stage three of the experiment Children were then taken to another experimental room and allowed to play freely for 20 minutes with aggressive and non aggressive toys and a 3 foot bobo doll. Behaviour was rated by observing through a one way mirror.

Results Children exposed to an aggressive role model displayed significantly more direct imitation than children exposed to the non-aggressive model. On average 12. 7 aggressive acts were imitated from the aggressive model Girls were more likely to engage in verbal aggression and boys more likely to engage in physical aggression Watching an aggressive role model had a greater effect on boys than on girls Boys were more likely to imitate aggressive acts from the same sex role model than girls Boys copied 25. 8 aggressive acts when the model was male On average girls copied 5. 5 aggressive acts if the model was female and 7. 2 aggressive acts if the model was male.

Conclusion The findings support Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. That is, children learn social behaviour such as aggression through the process of observation learning – through watching the behaviour of another person. Children exposed to an aggressive model are likely to display aggression and to imitate aggressive acts.

Evaluation of bobo doll study Strengths: GRAVE + Takes into account COGNITIVE PROCESSES + Has many applications (gender roles) + Great deal of strong experimental evidence - Bandura’s bobo doll study found children imitate same sex role models + + Practical applications e. g. introducing positive role models; having age restrictions on video games and films so children are not exposed to undesirable behaviour

Evaluation of bobo doll study Weaknesses: GRAVE - Does not explain individual differences – e. g. reinforcement to one child might not be the same for another -Does not account for ALL behaviour e. g. becomes a criminal, despite not associating with criminals -It has taken place in a lab and NOT a real life setting – how do we know children would react like this in the real world – this means it lack ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY -Generalisability -Ethical Issues -Is it actual aggression or just harmless play? -Lack of validity – behaviour may have been learnt but not exhibited immediately. Lab studies only show what happens within a limit time, so it may appear behaviour has/has not been learnt yet it may be displayed later.

Social learning- Evaluation 1. Social learning theory provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning than behaviourism because………………… It emphasises the importance of cognitive factors in learning. Neither classical or operant conditioning can offer a comprehensive account on human learning because cognitive factors such as the mediational processes are ignores. By taking into account these processes which cannot be demonstrated with animal research, SLT provides a more complete explanation of human learning than the behaviourist approach

Social learning- Evaluation 2. Much of the research is based on laboratory studies which may involve demand characteristics. This is problematic because…… The approach relies to heavily on evidence from controlled lab studies. This is evident in Bandura’ (1961) Bobo doll study. The main purpose of the bobo doll is to hit it. The children in the study may have been behaving as they thought was expected. Thus the research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.

Social learning- Evaluation 3. The Social learning theory underestimates the influence of Biological factors. This is a limitation because… The SLT sees behaviour as environmentally determined whereas some behaviours may be innate. For example, a consistent finding in the bobo doll experiment was that boys showed more aggression than girls regardless of the specifics of experimental condition. This may be explained by differences in the levels of testosterone, which is present in larger doses in males compared to females and has been liked to aggression. Both the SLT and Bandura may have underestimated the important the impact of biological, heredity or maturational factors on behaviours. Evidence from these areas of research does show they do have an impact.

Social learning- Evaluation 4. SLT can explain gender differences across cultures which is useful because…………. It helps us to understand a range of behaviours and how cultural norms are transmitted. It helps us to understands how children learn from parents and each other and also how the media can influence our behaviour. This is in contrast with the biological approach who explain universal behaviours because human biological processes do not change with behaviour.

Social learning- Evaluation 5. The SLT is less Deterministic than behaviourism because is suggests that there is an element of free will in the way we behave. This is an advantage because it offers a more realistic and flexible position than is suggested by the behaviourist approach as it recognises the role we play in shaping our environment.

Difficulty demonstrating cause and effect – although Bandura research controlled variables and demonstrated behaviour was imitated it is difficult to show cause and effect in real life Benefits of the experimental approach to investigate learning and issues with experimental evidence that might affect the validity of the results and therefore the conclusions drawn. Provides explanations that relate to behaviours such as aggression and intellectual development. mediating cognitive factors have to be inferred so cannot measure extent of their influence SLT does not explain cognitive processes, leaving this to cognitive psychologists

Cognitive approach The cognitive approach: the study of internal mental processes, the role of schema, the use of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes. The emergence of cognitive neuroscience.

Cognitive assumptions • A person’s behaviour is determined by the way they think about the world • The scientific study of mental processes • We can make inferences about what is going on inside someone’s head based on how they are behaving • Faulty thought processes lead to behavioural abnormalities • The use of computer models when describing and explaining mental processes (human mind processes information much the same as a computer) • Behaviour is influenced by the person’s schemas – a schema is a set of ideas about a particular concept The emergence of cognitive neuroscience

What is a Schema? Schemas are like filing cabinets, as they organise and contain information. Your mind Each file in the cabinet is a schema You have millions of these files (schemas) in your mind. For example…

Restaurant Schema Question: What do you think will happen if you go to a posh restaurant? How might you use a schema? Your schema will tell you…

Restaurant Schema Question: Is your schema for this restaurant the same…

What is a Schema? Schemas are ways we organize and store thoughts and information in our minds which are about ourselves and our world around us. When we take in information we often link it with information we already know. § Question: WHY do we have schemas?

Why do we have Schemas? They help us organise information in our mind. Allow us to take short cuts (process information quickly) when dealing with huge amounts of information. However, schemas distort our memory and how we interpret things…

What do you see? “Remembering is not a passive but rather an active process, where information is retrieved and changed to fit into existing schemas” (Bartlett)

Theoretical and computer models Scientific models aim to provide simplified, objective representations of how our minds might work. Theoretical models are descriptive versions of how some aspect of human behaviour works, which may be represented visually. To the right is an example of a theoretical model that attempts to explain how our memory works Computer models The Cognitive Approach also uses Computer models where the mind is compared to a computer suggesting there are similarities in the way information is processed. These models use the concepts of A central processing unit (Brain) Coding (to turn information into useful concepts) Stores (to hold information)

Theoretical and computer models: Why are humans not identical to computers? Too simplistic Ignores the biological complexity of the brain Does not consider human emotion Does not consider motivation Research shows we are affected by human emotion (e. g anxiety and memory) Difficult to objectively measure

Machine reductionism Reductionist To a complex phenomenon (like the human mind and behaviour) psychologist often need to “reduce” it to it’s smallest parts. Machine reductionism Theoretical and computer models use the analogy of machine systems, and the simple components of such machines, as a means to describe and explain behaviour. This is reductionist as it ignores the complexity of human behaviour and more specifically it ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation.

Cognitive approach: evaluation • Uses scientific and objective methods • Approach is based on machine reductionism • Based on research that lacks external validity (infer: too abstract and theoretical) • Application to everyday life • Less deterministic than other approaches

Approaches: 2 Next week: Biological approach Psychodynamic approach Humanistic approach