Applied Psychology Chapter 17 Applied Psychology Overview IndustrialOrganizational
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Applied Psychology Chapter 17
Applied Psychology Overview • • • Industrial/Organizational Psychology Human Factors and Ergonomics Psychology and the Law Environmental Psychology Community Psychology Sports Psychology
What is Applied Psychology? • Applied psychology the branch of psychology that uses psychological principles to solve practical problems in everyday life
Industrial Organizational Psychology
What is Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology ? Industrial/Organizational Psychology: • Explores how individual behaviour is affected by the work environment, coworkers, and organizational practices
Industrial Organizational Psychology Four broad areas: – Human Resources Psychology – Motivation and job performance – Job satisfaction – Leadership
Human Resources Psychology • Human resources psychologists are involved in the following activities related to employment: • Job analyses • Selection Procedures • Education and Training • Performance appraisal
Job Analyses • Job analyses: – specify performance criteria (i. e. the behaviours that are required of the employees) – specify the qualifications for employment in that position
Selection Procedures Selection procedures: • assess the suitability of job candidates to help an employer determine who to hire • Various tests are often used:
Education and Training • Most corporations offer systematic training so employees can learn skills to improve their job performance • I/O psychologists typically break a training program down into a series of learning objectives
Performance Appraisal Performance appraisal • the process by which a supervisor periodically evaluates the job-relevant strengths and weaknesses of a subordinate • Often used to determine salaries, layoffs, firings, transfers, and promotions
Motivation of Job Performance • I/O psychologists often help determine what motivates employees to be productive • A number of theories attempt to explain employee motivation: – Need & Goal-Setting Theory – Expectancy Theory – Equity Theory
Motivation of Job Performance Expectancy Theories • Assert that a worker’s desire to work is determined by expectations regarding the outcome of that work • Vroom’s Expectancy Theory: – Expectancy – Instrumentality – Valence
Motivation of Job Performance Equity theory: • asserts that workers feel that what they do (input) should be balanced by their compensation (reward) • Employees will adjust their work level according to compensation levels
Job Satisfaction
Job Satisfaction • Job satisfaction – • Sources of Job Satisfaction: – the work itself the perceived rewards of the work the quality of supervision the support of co-workers – the work setting – – –
Leadership
Leadership • Leaders - people who influence other people’s behaviour toward the attainment of agreed-upon goals
Leadership: Areas of Research • Leadership traits – • Leadership behaviours - refer to how a leader interacts with other members of the organization • Situational leadership – • Leadership effectiveness – Vroom’s leadership model emphasizes the important role of situational variables in determining appropriate leadership approach • Transformational leadership - leaders who provide inspiration, intellectual stimulation, and individual attention to followers
Human Factors and Ergonomics
Human Factors • Human factors (sometimes called ergonomics) – • Its aim is to study the “fit” between people and their environment in order to improve performance, well-being, safety and health • Involves the application of scientific principles, methods, and data drawn from a variety of disciplines
Human Factors • To evaluate interactions between tasks and people we must understand the anatomical physiological, and psychological characeristics of people • Human Factors researchers integrate knowledge of all areas of psycholgy – perception, memory, cognition, physiological, attention, social, etc. • Example: driving – requires attention, signal detection, decision making, learning, skill acquisition, workload, attitudes, etc.
Human Factors: Efficiency • To create efficiency, human factors researchers seek to develop person-machine interfaces that minimize frustration and errors, maximize output, and are reliable
Human Factors: Behaviour-Based Safety • Behaviour-based safety programs that focus on changing the behaviour of workers and companies to prevent occupational injuries and illnesses • A good safety culture within a company minimizes shortcut and rule violations, and encourages communication between workers and management
Human Factors: Behaviour-Based Safety Example • Most failures of human-machine system are due to poor designs that don’t recognize peoples’ capabilities and fallibilities Example: • Motorway Communications System • Police using the system failed to change the speed limit signs when fog descended causing major accident • A number of human-machine system problems identified: – Input codes were cryptic and therefore error prone – Error messages were cryptic e. g. , “error code 7” – Operator was overloaded with other tasks
Psychology and the Law
Psychology and Law • Legal psychology – • Forensic psychology - focuses on legal issues in which clinical psychologists can act as expert witnesses and consultants • Psychological jurisprudence - the study of efforts to develop a philosophy of law and justice based on psychological values
Psychology and Law Psychologists assume many roles in the legal system including: • Researcher • Policy or program evaluator • Advocate • Expert witnesses
ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Definition Crowding Environmental Variables
Environmental Psychology • Environmental psychology: – The study of how physical settings affect human behaviour and how people change their environment • What do Environmental psychologists do?
Environmental Psychology • Stressor: – a stimulus that affects an organism in a psychologically or physically injurious way
Temperature • a stressor that affects many behaviours • Very hot or very cold temperatures can cause behavioural effects • Extreme Heat: • Extreme Cold:
Noise • Noise is a stressor that can overstimulate people • Noise often leads to poor work performance and social functioning
Environmental Toxins • Nearly any airborne substance (man- made or natural) can trigger respiratory problems resulting in diminished work performance and health consequences • Airborne toxins can impair motor tasks involving reaction time and affect long-term health
Crowding - Number of people around can affect behaviour • Crowding: the perception that personal space is too limited rather then the size of a space or the number of people around • Studies: – Valins & Baum (1973)- more students who lived in a traditional dorm felt crowded than students who lived in a suite style dorm
Personal Space • Personal space: • Encroachment causes displeasure and possible withdrawal • Cultural Differences • Spatial Zones: Intimate, Personal, Social, and Public
COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY
Community Psychology • Community psychology: seeks to reach out to society by providing services and to effect social change • Methodology: uses qualitative and quantitative research to address complex social problems
Community Psychology • Empowerment: involves helping people in the community enhance their existing skills and develop new ones
Community Psychology • Prevention operates at three levels: • Primary prevention: • Secondary prevention: • Tertiary prevention:
SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY
Sports Psychology • Sports psychology: the systematic application of psychological principles to sports • Sports Psychologists:
Motivation What motivates an athlete? • Four levels of analysis: – Goal – Climate – Perception of Abilities – Adaptiveness of Behaviour
Activation and Arousal • Yerkes-Dodson Law: Moderate arousal is associated with enhanced performance while extremely low or high arousal is associated with diminished performance.
Anxiety and Performance • Interventions (Anxiety-Reducing Techniques): – Progressive Relaxation: – Hypnosis & Meditation: – Mental Imagery: – Cognitive:
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