APL Adapted Primary Literature APL refers to an

(APL) המאמר המעובד Adapted Primary Literature (APL), refers to an educational genre specifically designed to enable the use of scientific research articles in high-school. The original PSL articles are adapted to match students’ Ø Knowledge Ø Reading abilities Ø Cognitive skills while keeping the authentic characteristics of the PSL. (Yarden, 2008, 2015)

מדעימבנה ותוכן - המדעי המחקר מאמר טיעון והקשר שלהם לטיעון המדעי The limits of the validity of the claim הפרכה , סתירת הטענה A warrant is the justification that explains the relation of the data to the claim Osborne (2010)

השפה של המאמר המדעי The structure and grammar of research articles provide the semiotic means through which arguments are built throughout the article, reflecting the ways in which scientists do, explain, theorize, organize and challenge science. (Fang, 2012) : שאלות לחשוב עליהן תוך כדי שאנחנו מנתחים את השפה במאמר 3 ? • מה מאפיין את השפה של המאמר המדעי ? • איזו אפיסטמולוגיה עולה מתוך המאפיינים של השפה ? • איך השפה משרתת את התפתחות הטיעון המדעי לאורך המאמר

מבנה ותוכן - מאמר המחקר המדעי והקשר שלהם לטיעון המדעי “The essence of the scientific paper as an argumentative text is that its point of departure is the faith of the speaker in the facticity of the new information, and its rhetorical aim is to convince the audience, based on its disciplinary rationality, to accept that same faith and thereby usher the new claim into the shared disciplinary body of knowledge. Livnat, 2009

השפה של המאמר המדעי – נומינליזציה המאמר המעובד Example: nominalized “binding site” is unfolded to the verb “binds”. PSL "…a b-subunit (CTB) that contains binding site for the plasma membrane receptor of the intestinal epithelial cells and this is an ideal antigen candidate for oral vaccine…" APL Popualr "…whereas subunit-B binds to a specific receptor on the intestine cells membrane, … The subunit. B does not cause any symptoms, but it is capable of inducing an immune response, thus making it an ideal antigen for creating an edible vaccine to the cholera disease…" oral vaccines also initiate mucosal immunity, which fights infections in places where germs first attack the body: in the mucous membranes of the nose, mouth, lungs, gut, and genitals.

השפה של המאמר המדעי – מושגים Technicality The use of terms or expressions with a specialized fieldspecific meaning. The use of technical terms makes it possible to distill or compress meanings, saving the time-consuming process of elaboration. “Knowledge of the HIV protease (HIV PR) mechanism of action and substrate specificity has been extensively used to design a variety of transition state-based inhibitors with inhibition constants in the nanomolar or subnanomolar range”.

מושגים - השפה של המאמר המדעי Proportion of highly technical, field specific technical terms in the texts. Text Number of different Number of highly % of highly technical genre technical terms (from total terms) PSL 115 61 53. 0% APL 82 9 11. 0% Popular 63 1 1. 6%

השפה של המאמר המדעי – מושגים מאמר מעובד ניתוח מושגים מקצועיים בטקסטים הראה שבעוד שבמאמר המושגים כן מוסברים , המקורי המושגים הללו אינם מוסברים . במאמר המעובד "The native plastid ribosomal operon promoter (Prrn) was used to drive expression of the aad. A gene from the GGAG ribosome binding site for spectinomycin resistance. " (Results section, PSL article) "In order to sort the cells in which the transgenic DNA was inserted into their chloroplasts, cells are grown in sterile conditions in the presence of the antibiotics spectinomycin. This antibiotic prevents protein synthesis in the chloroplast by interfering with ribosomes activity". (Methods section, APL article)

השפה של המאמר המדעי – מושגים מאמר מעובד PSL Chloroplast-derived CTB malarial proteins APL Malarial proteins Popular Proteins Systemic antigen-specific immunoglobulins (Malarial) Antibodies Oral plant-derived vaccines Edible vaccines Plasma membrane receptor Receptor - Spectinomycin resistance Antibiotics resistance - Spectinomycin Antibiotics spectinomycin - Intestine Guts

הסמכות - השפה של המאמר המדעי Authoritativeness: Is realized through • Passivation • Acting participants • Hedging

הסמכות - השפה של המאמר המדעי Authoritativeness- Passivation: Verbs in the text can be either active verbs or passive verbs. In a clause with a passive verb, the actor (the participant doing the action) is not present, and the goal is in the center of attention. “Knowledge of the HIV protease (HIV PR) mechanism of action and substrate specificity has been extensively used to design a variety of transition state-based inhibitors with inhibition constants in the nanomolar or subnanomolar range”.

הסמכות - השפה של המאמר המדעי Authoritativeness- Participants: Who are the acting participants? Are they human? “Knowledge of the HIV protease (HIV PR) mechanism of action and substrate specificity has been extensively used to design a variety of transition state-based inhibitors with inhibition constants in the nanomolar or subnanomolar range”.

הסתייגויות - השפה של המאמר המדעי Authoritativeness- Hedging: Hedging is a way for the writers to signal to readers the certainty of their claims (Parkinson, 2002) Hedging is the proper way of offering a claim to the scientific community, and it does not necessarily reflect the probability of a claim or the writers' personal doubt in their claims. Myers (1989)

הסתייגויות - השפה של המאמר המדעי Categorization of scientific hedges (Hyland, 1996) In the original article and adapted article hedges are aimed to signal the reader on the personal responsibility of the writers to what is being written. Hedging in the popular article the writers are not taking personal responsibility on the scientific ideas that are being reported, and give full authority to the scientific community.

השפה של המאמר המדעי – דחיסות המידע Informational density: Lexical density is a measure of the density of information in a particular text, and it can be measured as the number of content words per clause. (Halliday & Martin, 1993) השינויים עליהם דיברנו עד עכשיו משפיעים לטובה גם על ומייצרים טקסט קל יותר לקריאה על ידי תלמידים , הדחיסות ! הוא לא קל - ועדיין. צעירים

(cohesion) השפה של המאמר המדעי – לכידות Cohesion in the text: “…Nonspecialists who have to read scientific texts… often think their difficulty in reading is a simple matter of not knowing the vocabulary… But their problem will not be solved even by a very large dictionary, for much of the difficulty is in the process of connecting one sentence to the next…” Myers 1991

(cohesion) השפה של המאמר המדעי – לכידות “The sequences corresponding to the 18 S and 28 S r. RNAs have been mapped within a cloned 17 kilobase fragment formed by Eco. R 1 cleavage of drosophila melanogaster r. DNA… This fragment Dm 103, represents the longer of two major types of repeating units that are present in the r. DNA of this fly…” , אבל כדי להבין כיצד הם קשורים , המשפטים קשורים זה לזה . צריך ידע מסוים

(cohesion) השפה של המאמר המדעי – לכידות PSL "…a b-subunit (CTB) that contains binding site for the plasma membrane receptor of the intestinal epithelial cells and this is an ideal antigen candidate for oral vaccine…" APL JRV "…whereas subunit-B binds to a specific receptor on the intestine cells membrane, … The subunit-B does not cause any symptoms, but it is capable of inducing an immune response, thus making it an ideal antigen for creating an edible vaccine to the cholera disease…" oral vaccines also initiate mucosal immunity, which fights infections in places where germs first attack the body: in the mucous membranes of the nose, mouth, lungs, gut, and genitals.

סיכום - השפה של המאמר המדעי Kruskal–Wallis test (2, n = 280). Gray cells mark significant difference in Bonferroni comparison test (p < 0. 016). Light gray cells mark significant difference of p < 0. 016, dark gray cells mark significant difference of p < 0. 0001. c Chi-square test (2, n = 280), ***p < 0. 0001. a b

(APL) מאמר מעובד - סוגות מדעיות Research articles (PSL) Popular articles Textbooks APL Source of information (Writers) Scientists (first -hand) Journalists (second-hand) Science educators and scientists Target audience (readers) The scientific community Non-scientists (general public) Students Non-canonical Canonical (IMRD) Various degrees of certainty, with minimum evidence to support conclusions Certain, with minimum evidence to support conclusions Uncertain, using evidence to support conclusions Structure Canonical (IMRD) Presentation Uncertain, using evidence to of science support conclusions Writers' purpose To get claims accepted by the scientific community To report about new scientific discoveries To explain and To enable the use of summarize known research articles for and accepted learning biology in scientific knowledge secondary school