AP World History Unit 7 Geocentric Heliocentric Geocentric

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AP World History Unit #7

AP World History Unit #7

Geocentric / Heliocentric Geocentric – Theory that places the earth at the center of

Geocentric / Heliocentric Geocentric – Theory that places the earth at the center of the universe; prior to the Enlightenment this was the dominant theory in Europe. Heliocentric – Theory that places the sun as the center of the universe. In the Middle Ages, many educated Europeans took great interest in the world around them. However, these “natural philosophers”, as medieval scientists were known, did not make observations of the natural world. Instead they relied on a few ancient authorities – especially Aristotle – for their scientific knowledge. During the 15 th and 16 th centuries, a number of changes occurred that caused the natural philosophers to abandon their old views and to develop new ones. Renaissance humanists had mastered Greek as well as Latin. These language skills gave them access to newly discovered works by Ptolemy, Archimedes, and Plato. These writings made it obvious that some ancient thinkers had disagreed with Aristotle and other accepted authorities of the Middle Ages. Other developments also encouraged new ways of thinking. Technical problems that required careful observation and accurate measurements, such as calculating the amount of weight that ships could hold, served to stimulate scientific activity. Then, too, the invention of new instruments, such as the telescope and microscope, made fresh scientific discoveries possible. Above all, the printing press helped spread new ideas quickly and easily. Mathematics played a key role in the scientific achievements of the 16 th and 17 th centuries. Francois Viete, a French lawyer, was among the first to use letters to represent unknown quantities. He applied the algebraic method to geometry and laid the foundation for the invention of trigonometry. Simon Stevin, a Flemish engineer, introduced the decimal system. John Napier of Scotland invented a table of logarithms. The work of both Stevin and Napier made it much easier to make the calculations critical to math problems. The study of mathematics was promoted in the Renaissance by the rediscovery of the works of ancient mathematicians. Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac Newton were all great mathematicians who believed that the secrets of nature were written in the language of mathematics. After studying, and sometimes discarding, the ideas of the ancient mathematicians, these intellectuals developed new theories that became the foundation of the Scientific Revolution. Closure Question #1: Contrast the Ptolemaic and Copernican universes.

Galileo Galilei / Scientific Revolution Galileo Galilei - Italian astronomer who discovered that heavenly

Galileo Galilei / Scientific Revolution Galileo Galilei - Italian astronomer who discovered that heavenly bodies were composed of material substances, just like the earth. Galileo’s teachings led him to conflict with the Catholic church, which rejected heliocentrism. Scientific Revolution – A new way of thinking about the natural world that was based on careful observation and a willingness to question accepted beliefs. The Revolution began in the mid-1500 s with great thinkers such Galileo, Nicolas Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Isaac Newton, Francis Bacon, and Rene Descartes. Johannes Kepler, a German mathematician, took the next step in destroying the Ptolemaic system. Kepler used detailed astronomical data to arrive at his laws of planetary motion. His observations confirmed that the sun was at the center of the universe and also added new information. In his first law, Kepler showed that the planets’ orbits around the sun were not circular, as Copernicus had thought. Rather the orbits were elliptical (egg-shaped) with the sun toward the end of the ellipse instead of at the center. This finding, known as Kepler’s First Law, contradicted the circular orbits and crystal-like spheres that were central to the Ptolemaic system. Scientists could now think in terms of planets revolving around the sun in elliptical orbits. Important questions remained unanswered, however. What are the planets made of? How does one explain motion in the universe? An Italian scientist answered the first question. Galileo Galilei taught mathematics. He was the first European to make regular observations of the heavens using a telescope. With this tool, Galileo made a remarkable series of discoveries: mountains on Earth’s moon, four moons revolving around Jupiter, and sunspots. Galileo’s observations seemed to destroy yet another aspect of the Ptolemaic conception. Heavenly bodies had been seen as pure orbs of light. They now appeared to be composed of material substance, just as Earth was. Galileo’s discoveries, published in The Starry Messenger in 1610, did more to make Europeans aware of the new view of the universe than did the works of Copernicus and Kepler. But in the midst of his newfound fame, Galileo found himself under suspicion by the Catholic Church. The Church ordered Galileo to abandon the Copernican idea, which threatened the Church’s entire conception of the universe. In the Copernican view, humans were no longer at the center of the universe; God was no longer in a specific place. In spite of the Church’s position, by the 1630 s and 1640 s, most astronomers had accepted the heliocentric conception of the universe. Closure Question #2: Why do you think that the Catholic Church condemned Galileo’s work?

Scientific Method – A systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence. The scientific method

Scientific Method – A systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence. The scientific method was crucial to the evolution of science in the modern world. Inductive Reasoning – Proceeding from the particular to the general; Scientists begin this reasoning by freeing their mind from bias, then collecting detailed facts and proceeding toward general principles. During the Scientific Revolution, people became concerned about how the could best understand the physical world. The result was the creation of the scientific method. The person who developed the scientific method was actually not a scientist. Francis Bacon was an English philosopher with few scientific credentials. He believed that scientists should not rely on the ideas of ancient authorities. Instead, they should learn about nature by using inductive reasoning. Before beginning this reasoning, scientists try to free their minds of opinions that might distort the truth. Then they start with detailed facts and proceed toward general principles. From observing natural events, scientists propose hypotheses (theories), or possible explanations, for the events. Then systematic observations and carefully organized experiments to test the hypotheses would lead to correct general principles. Sir Francis Bacon was clear about what he believed his scientific method could accomplish. He stated that “the true and lawful goal of the sciences is none other than this: that human life be endowed with new discoveries and power. ” He was much more concerned with practical matters than pure science. Bacon wanted science to benefit industry, agriculture, and trade. He said, “I am laboring to lay the foundation, not of any sect or doctrine, but of human utility and power. ” How would this “human power” be used? Bacon believed it could be used to “conquer nature in action. ” The control and domination of nature became an important concern of science and the technology that accompanied it.

Enlightenment / Isaac Newton Enlightenment - An 18 th century philosophical movement of intellectuals

Enlightenment / Isaac Newton Enlightenment - An 18 th century philosophical movement of intellectuals who were greatly impressed with the achievements of the Scientific Revolution. They hoped that by using the scientific method, they could make progress toward a better society than the one they had inherited. Reason, natural law, hope, and progress were common words to the thinkers of the Enlightenment. The ideas of the Enlightenment would become a force for reform and eventually revolution. Isaac Newton – Great English scientist of the mid-1600 s who developed the law of gravity, which states that every object in the universe attracts every other object, and that the degree of attraction depends on the mass of the objects and the distance between them. Isaac Newton believed that the physical world and everything in it was like a giant machine. His “worldmachine” operated according to natural laws, which could be uncovered through systematic investigation. The Enlightenment thinkers reasoned that if Newton was able to discover the natural laws that governed the physical world, then by applying his scientific methods, they would be able to discover the natural laws that governed human society. If all institutions would then follow these natural laws, the result would be an ideal society.

Closure Assignment #1 Based on the material covered from Chapter 22, Section 1, answer

Closure Assignment #1 Based on the material covered from Chapter 22, Section 1, answer the following three questions on your closure sheet: 1. Contrast the Ptolemaic and Copernican universes. 2. Why did the Catholic Church condemn Galileo’s work? 3. “If I have seen farther than others, ” said Newton, “It is because I have stood on the shoulders of giants. ” Could this be said of most scientific accomplishments? Explain.

Thomas Hobbes / Social Contract Thomas Hobbes - English political thinker who wrote Leviathan

Thomas Hobbes / Social Contract Thomas Hobbes - English political thinker who wrote Leviathan in 1651, which supports the need for organized society & Absolutism and argues that all rebellions should be suppressed. Social Contract – Term coined by Hobbes to describe the agreement by which people hand over their rights to a strong ruler in exchange for law and order. The 17 th century concerns with order and power were reflected in the political thought of the time. The English revolutions of the 17 th century prompted very different responses from 2 English political thinkers, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Hobbes was alarmed by the revolutionary upheavals in England. He claimed that before society was organized human life was “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short. ” Humans were guided not by reason and moral ideals but by a ruthless struggle for self-preservation. To save themselves from destroying one another, people made a social contract and agreed to form a state. Hobbes called the state “that great Leviathan to which we our peace and defense. ” People in the state agreed to be governed by an absolute ruler who possessed unlimited power.

John Locke / Natural Rights John Locke – English political thinker who argued against

John Locke / Natural Rights John Locke – English political thinker who argued against Absolutism and believed that all humans had natural rights – rights with which they were born such as life, liberty and property. Locke’s first writings, Two Treatises of Government, written in 1679 and 1680 were considered too radical and dangerous to be published. They first appeared in 1690. In his treatises, especially in the second one, Locke argued against the absolute rule of one person. He described how governments are formed and what justifies them. Unlike Hobbes, Locke believed that before society was organized, humans lived in a state of equality and freedom rather than a state of war. In this state of nature, no one was necessarily sovereign over anyone else. Like Hobbes, however, Locke believed that problems existed in the state of nature. People found it difficult to protect their natural rights. For that reason, they agreed to establish a government to ensure the protection of their rights and to judge those who violated them.

Philosophes The intellectuals of the Enlightenment were known by the French word philosophe, meaning

Philosophes The intellectuals of the Enlightenment were known by the French word philosophe, meaning “philosopher”. Not all philosophes were French, however, and few were philosophers in the strict sense of the term. They were writers, professors, journalists, economists, and above all, social reformers. They came chiefly from the nobility and the middle class. The intellectuals of the Enlightenment were especially influenced by the ideas of two 17 th century Englishmen, John Locke and Isaac Newton. Locke’s ideas suggested that people were molded by the experiences that came through their senses from the surrounding world. Enlightenment thinkers began to believe that if environments were changed and people were exposed to the right influences, then people could be changed to create a new – and better – society. Of great importance to the Enlightenment was the spread of its ideas to the literate elite of European society. Especially noticeable in the 18 th century was the growth of both publishing and the reading public. The number of titles issued each year by French publishers rose from 300 in 1750 to about 1, 600 in the 1780 s. Books had previously been aimed at small groups of the educated elite. Now, many books were directed at the new reading public of the middle classes, which included women and urban artisans. An important aspect of the growth of publishing and reading in the 18 th century was the development of magazines and newspapers for the general public. In Great Britain, an important center for the new magazines, 25 periodicals were published in 1700, 103 in 1760, and 158 in 1780. The first daily newspaper was printed in London in 1702. Newspapers were relatively cheap and were even provided free in many coffeehouses.

Voltaire French philosophe best known for his criticism of Christianity and belief in religious

Voltaire French philosophe best known for his criticism of Christianity and belief in religious toleration. Voltaire was an ardent supporter of deism. In the Deist’s view, God created the universe, set it in motion, and allowed it to run without his interference according to its own natural laws. The system of checks and balances through separation of powers was Montesquieu’s most lasting contribution to political thought. Translation of his work into English made it available to American philosophes, who worked his principles into the U. S. Constitution. The greatest figure of the Englightenment was Francois-Marie Arouet, known simply as Voltaire. A Parisian, Voltaire came from a prosperous middle-class family. His numerous writings brought him both fame and wealth. Voltaire was especially well known for his criticism of Christianity and his strong belief in religious toleration. He fought against religious intolerance in France. In 1763 he penned his Treatise on Toleration, in which he reminded governments that “all men are brothers under God. ” Throughout his life, Voltaire championed deism, an 18 th century religious philosophy based on reason and natural law. Deism built on the idea of the Newtonian world-machine. In the Deist’s view, a mechanic (God) had created the universe. To Voltaire and most other philosophes, the universe was like a clock. God, the clockmaker, had created it, set it in motion, and allowed it to run without his interference and according to its own natural laws. “Those who can make you believe absurdities can make you commit atrocities. ” Voltaire’s words reflected his observations on history and foreshadowed atrocities yet to come. Outspoken against tyranny, ignorance, and the excesses of the Church, Voltaire never held his tongue, even in the face of threats. Forced to choose between exile and imprisonment after insulting a powerful French nobleman, Voltaire chose exile in England. While there he befriended Jonathan Swift and Alexander Pope and was influenced by John Locke and Sir Isaac Newton. He returned home more radical than ever, and his ideas later influenced both American and French revolutionaries.

 Montesquieu French noble and philosophe; identified 3 basic kinds of governments: republics, despotism,

Montesquieu French noble and philosophe; identified 3 basic kinds of governments: republics, despotism, and monarchies. Montesquieu also created the idea of separation of powers in government, which is a theory that every government is divided into 3 branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. In good governments these branches limit & control each other through a system of checks & balances. To the philosophes, the role of philosophy was to change the world. One writer said that the philosophe is one who “applies himself to the study of society with the purpose of making his kind better and happier. ” One conducts this study by using reason, or an appeal to facts. A spirit of rational criticism was to be applied to everything, including religion and politics. The philosophes often disagreed. Spanning almost a century, the Enlightenment evolved over time. Each succeeding generation became more radical as it built on the contributions of the previous one. A few people, however, dominated the landscape – Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot. Charles-Louis de Secondat, the baron de Montesquieu, was a French Noble. His famous work The Spirit of Laws (1748) was a study of governments. In it, Montesquieu used the scientific method to try to find the natural laws that govern the social and political relationships of human beings. Montesquieu identified three basic kinds of governments: (1) republics, suitable for small states; (2) despotism, appropriate for large states; and (3) monarchies, ideal for moderate-sized states. He used England as an example of monarchy. Montesquieu stated that England’s government had three branches: the executive (the monarch), the legislative (Parliament) and the judicial (the courts of law). The government functioned through a separation of powers. By preventing any one person or group from gaining too much power, this system provides the greatest freedom and security for the state. Closure Question #1: How are the branches of the U. S. government similar to the branches Montesquieu identified. How are they different?

Jean-Jacques Rousseau French philosophe who argued that people had adopted laws and government in

Jean-Jacques Rousseau French philosophe who argued that people had adopted laws and government in order to preserve their private property and that individuals must learn to abide by the general will of their society. In his book, The Social Contract, Rousseau contends that an entire society agrees to be governed by its general will, which is the wants and needs of the majority. By the late 1760 s, a new generation of philosophes had come to maturity. Ideas about liberty, education, and the condition of women were spread through and increasingly literate society. The most famous philosophe of the later Enlightenment was Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The young Roussea wandered through France and Italy holding various jobs. Eventually he made his way to paris, where he was introduced into the circle of the philosophes. He did not like city life, however, and often withdrew into long periods of solitude. In his Discourse on the Origins of Inequality of Mankind, Rousseau argued that people had adopted laws and government in order to preserve their private property. In the process, the had become enslaved by government. What, then, should people do to regain their freedom? In his major work The Social Contract, published in 1762, Rousseau presented his concept of the social contract. Through a social contract, an entire society agrees to be governed by its general will. Individuals who wish instead to follow their own self-interests must be forced to abide by the general will. “This means nothing less than that they will be forced to be free, ” said Rousseau. Thus, liberty is achieved by being forced to follow what is best for “the general will” because the general will represents what is best for the entire community. Another important work by Rousseau is Emile. Written in the form of a novel, the work is a general discussion “on the education of the natural man. ” Rousseau argues that education should foster, and not restrict, children’s natural instincts. Unlike many Enlightenment thinkers, Rousseau believed that emotions, as well as reason, were important to human development. He sought a balance between heart and mind, between emotions and reason. Closure Question #2: What did Rousseau mean when he stated that if individuals wanted to pursue their own self-interests at the expense of the common good, they “will be forced to be free”? Do you agree or disagree? Why?

Mary Wollstonecraft An English author, Wollstonecraft is considered the founder of modern women’s rights

Mary Wollstonecraft An English author, Wollstonecraft is considered the founder of modern women’s rights movements; She argued that, since the Enlightenment was based on the idea of reason in all human beings, women should have equal rights with men in education, economics, & politics. For centuries, male intellectuals had argued that the nature of women made them inferior to men and made male domination of women necessary. By the 18 th century, however, female thinkers began to express their ideas about improving the condition of women. Mary Wollstonecraft, an English writer, advanced the strongest statement for the rights of women. Many see her as the founder of the modern European and American movements for women’s rights. In A Vindication of the Rights of Women, Wollstonecraft identified two problems with the views of many Enlightenment thinkers. She noted that the same people who argued that women must obey men also said that government based on the arbitrary power of monarchs over their subjects was wrong. Wollstonecraft pointed out that the power of men over women was equally wrong. Wollstonecraft further argued that the Enlightenment was based on an ideal of reason in all human beings. Therefore, because women have reason, they are entitled to the same rights as men. Women, Wollstonecraft declared, should have equal rights in education, as well as in economic and political life. Closure Question #3: Mary Wollstonecraft argued that women are entitled to the same rights as men. Do you believe this is true? Do you believe that women today are given equal rights today?

Closure Assignment #2 Based on the material covered from Chapter 22, Section 2, answer

Closure Assignment #2 Based on the material covered from Chapter 22, Section 2, answer the following three questions on your closure sheet: 1. How are the branches of the U. S. government similar to the branches Montesquieu identified. How are they different? 2. What did Rousseau mean when he stated that if individuals wanted to pursue their own self-interests at the expense of the common good, they “will be forced to be free”? Do you agree or disagree? Why? 3. Mary Wollstonecraft argued that women are entitled to the same rights as men. Do you believe this is true? Do you believe that women today are given equal rights?

Salons / Neo-Classical Salons – Elegant drawing rooms of the wealthy European upper -class’

Salons / Neo-Classical Salons – Elegant drawing rooms of the wealthy European upper -class’ houses in which invited guests took part in conversations centered on Enlightenment ideas and philosophies. Neo-Classical – The artistic style in Europe during the late 1700 s which replaced Baroque. Under the influence of the Enlightenment, artists and architects worked in a simple and elegant style that borrowed ideas and themes from classical Greece and Rome. Salons brought writers and artists together with aristocrats, government officials, and wealthy middleclass people. The women who hosted the salons were in a position to sway political opinion and influence literary and artistic taste. For example, Marie-Therese de Geoffrin, wife of a wealthy merchant, hosted salons. These gatherings at her fashionable home in Paris became the talk of France and of all Europe. Distinguished foreigners competed to receive invitations to the salons. These gatherings helped spread the ideas of the Enlightenment. Although many philosophers attacked the Christian churches, most Europeans in the 18 th century were still Christian. Many people also sought a deeper personal devotion to God. The Catholic parish church remained an important center of life. How many people went to church regularly is unknown, but 90 to 95% of Catholic populations went to mass on Easter Sunday. After the initial religious fervor that created Protestantism in the 16 th century, Protestant churches settled into well-established patterns often controlled or influenced by state authorities. Many Protestant churches were lacking in religious enthusiasm. The desire of ordinary Protestants for greater depths of religious experience led to new religious movements. In England, the most famous new religious and evangelical movement – Methodism – was the work of John Wesley, an Anglican minister. Wesley had a mystical experience in which “the gift of God’s grace” assured him of salvation. The experience led him to become a missionary to the English people to bring them the “glad tidings” of salvation. Closure Question #1: What advantages did salons have over earlier forms of communication in spreading ideas?

Enlightened Despots / Catherine the Great Enlightened Despots - New type of monarchy in

Enlightened Despots / Catherine the Great Enlightened Despots - New type of monarchy in Europe during the late 18 th century; Rulers tried to govern by Enlightenment principles and maintain their royal powers. Catherine the Great – Ruler of Russia from 1762 to 1796; Catherine rejected Enlightenment reforms because she knew that Russian nobility would not support them. This led to worse conditions for Russian peasants and to rebellion in southern Russia; however, the rebellions were brutally put down and serfdom was expanded further in Russia as a result. Enlightenment thought influenced European politics in the 18 th century. The philosophes believed in natural rights for all people. These rights included equality before the law; freedom of religious worship: freedom of speech: freedom of the press; and the rights to assemble, hold property, and pursue happiness. As the American Declaration of Independence expressed, “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. ” To establish and preserve these natural rights, most philosophes believed that people needed to be governed by enlightened rulers. Enlightened rulers are monarchs who allow religious toleration, freedom of speech and of the press, and the rights of private property. They nurture the arts, sciences, and education. Above all, enlightened rulers obey the laws and enforce them fairly for all subjects. Only strong, enlightened monarchs could reform society. Many historians once assumed that a new type of monarchy, which they called enlightened absolutism, emerged in the later 18 th century. In the system of enlightened absolutism, rulers tried to govern by Enlightenment principles while maintaining their royal powers.

Thomas Jefferson / Declaration of Independence Thomas Jefferson - Representative from Virginia at the

Thomas Jefferson / Declaration of Independence Thomas Jefferson - Representative from Virginia at the 2 nd Continental Congress and the main author of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Jefferson was elected as the 3 rd President of the United States (1801 -1809), and was most famous for making the Louisiana Purchase from France. Declaration of Independence – Written by Jefferson and approved by the Second Continental Congress on July 4 th, 1776; the Declaration officially claimed that the 13 British colonies were free of British rule. Fighting finally erupted between colonists and the British army in April 1775 in Lexington and Concord, Massachussetts. Meeting soon afterward, the Second Continental Congress set up an army, choosing George Washington as its commander. The war against Great Britain was a huge gamble. Britain was a strong military power with enormous financial resources. The Continental Army of the Americans was made up of undisciplined civilians who agreed to serve for only a short time. Of great importance to the colonies’ cause was support from foreign countries. These nations were eager to gain revenge for earlier defeats at the hands of the British. The French supplied arms and money to the rebels. French officers and soldiers also served in Washington’s army. In February 1778, following a British defeat, the French granted diplomatic recognition to the new United States. When Spain and the Dutch Republic entered the war, the British faced war with the Europeans as well as the Americans. When General Cornwallis was forced to surrender to the American and French forces under Washington at Yorktown in 1781, the British decided to end the war. The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1783, recognized the independence of the American colonies. The treaty also granted the Americans control of the western territory from the Appalachians to the Mississippi River. Closure Question #2: If going to war with the British was such a huge gamble, why then did the colonists win?

Federal System / Bill of Rights Federal System - A political system in which

Federal System / Bill of Rights Federal System - A political system in which national and state governments share power; The United States Constitution, created in 1787 and based on Montesquieu’s ideas, created a federal system in which government was separated into 3 branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. Bill of Rights – Ten amendments, or additions, to the U. S. Constitution which guaranteed freedoms to individual citizens, including freedom of speech, religion, press, petition, and assembly. After throwing off oppressive rule, the former colonies, now states, feared a strong central government. Thus, their first constitution, the Articles of Confederation (1781), created a government that lacked the power to deal with the nation’s problems. In 1787, delegates met in Philadelphia at the Constitutional Convention to revise the Articles of Confederation. The delegates decided to write a plan for an entirely new government. The proposed Constitution created a federal system in which the national government and the state governments shared power. Each branch of the government had some power to check, or restrain, acts of the other branches. A president served as the chief executive in the executive branch. The legislative branch consisted of elected representatives. The Supreme Court and other courts formed the judicial branch. After ratification, or approval, by 9 of the 13 states, the Constitution took effect. As promised during negotiations over ratification, the new Congress proposed 12 amendments to the Constitution. The states approved 10 of the amendments. Together, these amendments became known as the Bill of Rights. These 10 amendments guaranteed freedom of religion, speech, press, petition, and assembly. They gave Americans the right to bear arms and to be protected against unreasonable searches and arrests. They guaranteed trial by jury, due process of law, and the protection of property rights. Closure Question #3: Why did many Europeans see the American Revolution as the embodiment of the Enlightenment’s political dreams?

Checks and Balances

Checks and Balances

Closure Assignment #3 Based on the material covered from Chapter 22, Section 3 and

Closure Assignment #3 Based on the material covered from Chapter 22, Section 3 and 4, answer the following three questions on your closure sheet: 1. What advantages did salons have over earlier forms of communication in spreading ideas? 2. If going to war with the British was such a huge gamble, why then did the colonists win? 3. Why did many Europeans see the American Revolution as the embodiment of the Enlightenment’s political dreams?

Old Regime / Estates Old Regime – The traditional social and political system of

Old Regime / Estates Old Regime – The traditional social and political system of France which divided the people of France into the estates. Estates – Status groups in France; French society was divided into three estates; The 1 st consisted of the clergy, the 2 nd consisted of the nobles, and the 3 rd consisted of everyone else. Since the Middle Ages, France’s population had been divided by law into the three estates. The First Estate, or clergy, numbered about 150, 000 out of a total population of 27 million and owned about 10% of the land. The clergy were radically divided. The higher clergy – cardinals, bishops, and heads of monasteries – were from noble families and shared their outlook and interests. The parish priests were often poor and from the class of commoners. The Second Estate, or nobility, numbered about 350, 000 & owned about 25 to 30% of the land. They played a crucial role in society in the 1700 s. They held leading positions in the government, in the military, in the law courts, in the Roman Catholic Church. Despite controlling most of the wealth of the kingdom, neither the clergy nor the nobles had to pay the taille, France’s chief tax. Unlike the First and Second Estates, the Third Estate was divided by vast differences in occupation, level of education, and wealth. Peasants made up 75 to 80% of the Third Estate and owned about 35 to 40% of the land; middle-class members of the Third Estate owned the rest. At least half of the peasants had little or no land to live on. All peasants owed certain duties to the nobles, which were a holdover from medieval times when serfdom was widespread. For example, a peasant had to pay a fee to grind his flour or press his grapes because the local lord controlled the flour mill and wine press. When the harvest time came, the peasant had to work a certain number of days harvesting the noble’s crop. Peasants resented these duties. New views about power and authority in government were spreading among the Third Estate. Members of the Third Estate were inspired by the success of the American Revolution. They began questioning longstanding notions about the structure of society. Quoting Rousseau and Voltaire, they began to demand equality, liberty, and democracy. By the 1780 s, France’s once prosperous economy was in decline. This caused alarm, particularly among the merchants, factory owners, and bankers of the Third Estate. On the surface, the economy appeared to be sound because both production and trade were expanding rapidly.

Louis XVI / Marie Antoinette The King and Queen of France prior to the

Louis XVI / Marie Antoinette The King and Queen of France prior to the French Revolution; high national debt due to war expenses, bad harvests, and lavish spending by royalty, forced Louis to raise taxes in 1789. This decision, combined with Enlightenment philosophies which condemned absolute monarchy, were the key causes of the French Revolution. Social conditions, then, formed a long-standing background to the French Revolution. The immediate cause of the revolution was the near collapse of the French budget. Although the economy had been expanding for 50 years, there were periodic crises. Bad harvests in 1787 and 1788 and a slowdown in manufacturing led to food shortages, rising prices for food, and unemployment. On the eve of the revolution , the French economy was in crisis. Despite these problems, the French king and his ministers continued to spend enormous sums of money on wars and court luxuries. The queen, Marie Antoinette, was especially known for her extravagance and this too caused popular resentment. When the government decided to spend huge sums to help the American colonists against Britain, the budget went into total crisis. Closure Question #1: List the reasons for the near collapse of government finances in France. (At least 2)

 Estates-General An assembly of representatives from all three estates. On May 5 th,

Estates-General An assembly of representatives from all three estates. On May 5 th, 1789, Louis XVI called for a meeting of the Estates-General to seek approval to increase taxes on the second estate (nobility) following France’s economic collapse. Strong leadership might have solved these and other problems. Louis XVI, however, was indecisive and allowed matters to drift. He paid little attention to his government advisers, and had little patience for the details of governing. The queen only added to Louis’ problems. She often interfered in the government, and frequently offered Louis poor advice. Further, since she was a member of the royal family of Austria, France’s long-time enemy, Marie Antoinette had been unpopular from the moment she set foot in France. Her behavior only made the situation worse. As queen, she spent so much money on gowns, jewels, gambling, and gifts that she became known as “Madame Deficit”. Rather than cutting expenses, Louis put off dealing with the emergency until he practically had no money left. His solution was to impose taxes on the nobility. However, the Second Estate forced him to call a meeting of the Estates-General to approve this new tax. The meeting, the first in 175 years, was held on May 5 th, 1789, at Versailles. The clergy and the nobles had dominated the Estates-General throughout the Middle Ages and expected to do so in the 1789 meeting. Under the assembly’s medieval rules, each estate’s delegates met in a separate hall to vote, and each estate had one vote. The two privileged estates could always outvote the Third Estate. The Third-Estate delegates, mostly members of the bourgeoisie whose views had been shaped by the Enlightenment, were eager to make changes in the government. They insisted that all three estates meet together and that each delegate have a vote. This would give the advantage to the Third Estate, which had as many delegates as the other two estates combined.

 National Assembly / Tennis Court Oath National Assembly – Following an order from

National Assembly / Tennis Court Oath National Assembly – Following an order from Louis XVI which would have given the 1 st & 2 nd estates complete power in the Estates General, representatives from the 3 rd estate, on June 17 th, 1789, voted themselves to be the government of France. This action marks the official beginning of the French Revolution. Tennis Court Oath - Declaration made by the National Assembly on June 20 th, 1789 that they would draft a constitution to establish a new government replacing the monarchy. On June 17 th, 1789, the Third Estate boldly declared that it was the national assembly and would draft a constitution. Three days later, on June 20, its deputies arrived at their meeting place, only to find the doors had been locked. They then moved to a nearby indoor tennis court and swore that they would continue meeting until they had a new constitution. The oath they swore is known as the Tennis Court Oath. Louis XVI prepared to use force against the Third Estate. On July 14, 1789, about 900 Parisians gathered in the courtyard of the Bastille – an old fortress, used as a prison and armory. The price of bread had reached record highs, so the crowd was hungry and agitated. According to rumor, the king’s troops were coming, and there was ammunition in the Bastille. A group of attackers managed to lower the two drawbridges over the moat. Members of the French Guard joined the attack. After four hours of fighting, the prison warden surrendered. The rebels released the seven prisoners and cut off the prison warden’s head. Angered that there were no munitions, the crowd demolished the Bastille brick by brick. Paris was abandoned to the rebels. When King Louis XVI returned to his palace at Versailles after a day of hunting, the duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt told him about the fall of the Bastille. Louis is said to have exlaimed, “Why this is a revolt. ” “No Sire, replied the duke, “It is a revolution. ” Closure Question #2: Do you think that changes in the French government were inevitable? Explain your answer.

Closure Question #3: How were the storming of the Bastille and the women’s march

Closure Question #3: How were the storming of the Bastille and the women’s march on Versailles similar? How were they different? In Paris, rumors flew. Some people suggested that Louis was intent on using military force to dismiss the National Assembly. Others charged that the foreign troops were coming to Paris to massacre French citizens. People began to gather weapons in order to defend the city against attack. On July 14 th, 1789, a mob searching for gunpowder and arms stormed the Bastille, a Paris prison. The mob overwhelmed the guard and seized control of the building. The angry attackers hacked the prison commander and several guards to death and then paraded around the streets with the dead men’s heads on pikes. Bread was a staple of the diet of the common people of France. In October 1789, thousands of Parisian women rioted over the rising price of bread. Brandishing knives, axes, and other weapons, the women marched on Versailles. First, they demanded that the National Assembly take action to provide bread. Then they turned their anger on the king and queen. They broke into the palace, killing some of the guards. The women demanded that Louis and Marie Antoinette return to Paris. After some time, Louis agreed.

Closure Assignment #4 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from

Closure Assignment #4 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 23, Section 1: 1. List the reasons for the near collapse of government finances in France. (At least 2) 2. Do you think that changes in the French government were inevitable? Explain your answer. 3. How were the storming of the Bastille and the women’s march on Versailles similar? How were they different?

 Legislative Assembly Similar to England’s Parliament, the French National Assembly created the Legislative

Legislative Assembly Similar to England’s Parliament, the French National Assembly created the Legislative Assembly as part of the constitutional monarchy established in 1791. This body had the power to create laws and to approve or reject declarations of war. However, the king still held the executive power to enforce laws. On October 6, the King and his family returned to Paris. As a goodwill gesture, they brought wagonloads of flour from the palace storehouse. They were escorted by women who chanted “We are bringing back the baker, the baker’s wife, and the baker’s boy. ” The king, the queen, and their son were now virtual prisoners in Paris. Under the old regime, the Catholic Church had been an important pillar of the social and political system. The revolutionaries felt they had to reform it too. The new revolutionary government had another serious motivation, however; the need for money. By seizing and selling off Church lands, the National Assembly was able to increase the state’s revenues. Finally, the Church was formally brought under the control of the state. A law was passed called the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. It said that bishops and priests were to be elected by the pope and the Church hierarchy. The state would also pay the salaries of the bishops and priests. Because of these changes, many Catholics became enemies of the revolution. The new Constitution of 1791 set up a limited monarchy. There was still a king, but a Legislative Assembly would make the laws. The new body was designed to be conservative. First, only the so-called “active” citizens – men over 25 who paid a certain amount of taxes – could vote. All others were considered “passive” citizens with equal rights but no vote. Second, the method of choosing its 745 deputies meant that only relatively wealthy people would serve. Not only the clergy, but also government officials and judges, would be elected. Local governments were put in charge of taxation. The influence of the new government began to spread throughout France.

Closure Question #1: What similarities and differences do you see between the political factions

Closure Question #1: What similarities and differences do you see between the political factions in the Legislative Assembly and those in the U. S. government today? Despite the new government, old problems, such as food shortages and government debt, remained. The question of how to handle these problems caused the Legislative Assembly to split into three general groups, each of which sat in a different part of the meeting hall: Radicals, who sat on the left side of the hall, opposed the idea of a monarchy and wanted sweeping changes in the way the government was run. Moderates sat in the center of the hall and wanted some changes in government, but not as many as the radicals. Conservatives sat on the right side of the hall. They upheld the idea of a limited monarchy and wanted few changes in government.

Emigres / Sans-Culottes Emigres – Nobles and others who fled France in the aftermath

Emigres / Sans-Culottes Emigres – Nobles and others who fled France in the aftermath of the 1789 Revolution. Emigres hoped to undo the Revolution and restore the Old Regime. Sans-Culottes – “Without Breeches”, Members of the Paris Commune, an elected city council, wore long trousers, not the knee-length breeches of the nobles, to identify themselves as patriots without fine clothes. The Paris Commune took King Louis captive in 1792, leading to more radical and violent actions in the coming years. Monarchs and nobles in many European countries watched the changes taking place in France with alarm. They feared that similar revolts might break out in their own countries. In fact, some radicals were keen to spread their revolutionary ideas across Europe. As a result, some countries took action. Austria and Prussia, for example, urged the French to restore Louis to his position as an absolute monarch. The Legislative Assembly responded by declaring war in April 1792. The war began badly for the French. By the summer of 1792, Prussian forces were advancing on Paris. The Prussian commander threatened to destroy Paris if the revolutionaries harmed any member of the royal family. This enraged the Parisians. On August 10 th, about 200, 000 men and women invaded the Tuileries, the palace where the royal family was staying. The mob massacred the royal guards and imprisoned Louis, Marie Antoinette, and their children. Shortly after, the French troops defending paris were sent to reinforce the French army in the field. Rumors began to spread that supporters of the king held in Paris prisons planned to break out and seize control of the city.

Jacobins / Guillotine Jacobins – Radical revolutionary club in Paris which felt that the

Jacobins / Guillotine Jacobins – Radical revolutionary club in Paris which felt that the king needed to be executed to ensure he was not a rallying point for opponents of the newly established French Republic. Guillotine – Machine designed to humanely execute perceived enemies of the new French republic during the French Revolution. After his attempted escape to Varennes in 1791, Louis XVI remained on the throne for a year, but was a chaotic year. Unrest was fueled by continuing food shortages. , military setbacks, and rumors of royalist conspiracies. By August of 1792, the monarchy was over. The powerful Paris commune force the Legislative Assembly to call at National Convention. Before the Convention could meet, panic and fear gripped Paris. Rumors spread that imprisoned nobles and other traitors were conspiring to defeat the revolution. Violence erupted in the streets in September, leaving thousands dead. Soon the life of the king was at risk. The buildup to his execution began with the elections for a new National Convention. On January 21 st, 1793, the King was beheaded on the guillotine. Revolutionaries had adopted this machine because it killed quickly and, they believed, humanely. The king’s execution created new enemies for the revolution, both at home and abroad. It also pushed the revolution into a new radical phase. After Louis XVI was executed, a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain and the Dutch Republic took up arms against France. The French armies began to fall back. By late spring 1793, the coalition was poised to invade. It seemed possible that the revolution would be destroyed and the old regime reestablished.

Maximilien Robespierre / Reign of Terror Maximilien Robespierre – Leader of the Committee of

Maximilien Robespierre / Reign of Terror Maximilien Robespierre – Leader of the Committee of Public Safety from 1793 to 1794. A radical Jacobin, Robespierre presided over the Reign of Terror. (1793 -1794) Period in which the Committee of Public Safety established revolutionary courts to identify and prosecute counter-revolutionaries and traitors. 40, 000 people were killed, 15% of whom were clergy and nobles. The Terror ended when Robespierre was guillotined in July 1794. For roughly a year during 1793 and 1794 the Committee of Public Safety took control of the government. To defend France from domestic threats, the Committee adopted policies that became known as the Reign of Terror. As a temporary measure, revolutionary courts were set up to prosecute counter-revolutionaries and traitors. Throughout France, almost 40, 000 people were killed during the Reign of Terror. Of those, 16, 000 people, including Marie Antoinette and Olympe de Gouges, died by the guillotine. Most executions occurred in towns that had openly rebelled against the Convention. Revolutionary armies were set up to bring rebellious cities under the control of the National Convention. When the Committee of Public Safety decided to make an example of Lyon, 1, 880 citizens of that city were executed. When guillotining proved to slow, grapeshot (a cluster of small iron balls) was used to shoot the condemned into open graves. Closure Question #2: What conditions led to the Reign of Terror?

Closure Question #3: How did the Reign of Terror come to an end? The

Closure Question #3: How did the Reign of Terror come to an end? The “enemies of the Revolution” who troubled Robespierre the most were fellow radicals who challenged his leadership. In 1793 and 1794, many of those who had led the Revolution received death sentences. Their only crime was that they were considered less radical than Robespierre. In July 1794, fearing for their own safety, some members of the National Convention turned on Robespierre. They demanded his arrest and execution. The Reign of Terror, the radical phase of the French Revolution, ended on July 28 th, 1794, when Robespierre went to the guillotine. French public opinion shifted dramatically after Robespierre’s death. People of all classes had grown weary of the Terror. They were also tired of the skyrocketing prices for bread, salt, and other necessities of life. In 1795, moderate leaders in the National Convention drafted a new plan of government, the third since 1789.

Closure Assignment #5 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from

Closure Assignment #5 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 23, Section 2: 1. What similarities and differences do you see between the political factions in the Legislative Assembly and those in the U. S. government today? 2. What conditions led to the Reign of Terror? 3. How did the Reign of Terror come to an end?

Napoleon Bonaparte Military genius and First Emperor of France crowned in 1804; Napoleon’s success

Napoleon Bonaparte Military genius and First Emperor of France crowned in 1804; Napoleon’s success in defeating Austrian armies in Italy in 1796 made him a hero to the French people. In 1799, He took part in the coup d'état that established a new government, the Consulate. Napoleon ruled France until 1815, when he was exiled to St. Helena, a small island in the south Atlantic. Napoleon was born in 1769 in Corsica, an island in the Mediterranean, only a few months after France had annexed the island. His father came from minor nobility in Italy, but the family was not rich. Napoleon was talented, however, and won a scholarship to a famous military school. When he completed his studies, Napoleon was commissioned as a lieutenant in the French army. Although he became one of the world’s greatest generals and a man beloved by his soldiers, there were few signs of his future success at this stage. He spoke with an Italian accent and was not popular with his fellow officers. Napoleon devoted himself to his goals. He read what French philosophers had to say about reason, and he studied famous military campaigns. When revolution and war with Europe came about, there were many opportunities for Napoleon to use his knowledge and skills. Napoleon rose quickly through the ranks. In 1792 he became a captain. Two years later, at the age of 24, the Committee of Public Safety made him a brigadier general. In 1796 he became a commander of the French armies in Italy. There Napoleon won a series of battles with qualities he became famous for – speed, surprise, and decisive action. Napoleon defeated the armies of the Papal States and their Austrian allies. These victories gave France control of northern Italy. Throughout the Italian campaigns, Napoleon’s energy and initiative earned him the devotion of his troops. Closure Question #1: What personal qualities/achievements gained Napoleon so much popular support? (At least 2)

Coup D’etat “Blow to the state”; Term used to describe a sudden seizure of

Coup D’etat “Blow to the state”; Term used to describe a sudden seizure of power. In 1799, with the support of the military, Napoleon Bonaparte established himself as the supreme ruler of France. Napoleon Bonaparte’s role in the French Revolution is complex. In one sense, he brought it to an end when he came to power in 1799. Yet he was a child of the revolution as well. Without it, he would never have risen to power, and he himself never failed to remind the French that he had preserved the best parts of the revolution during his reign as emperor. At the time of Napoleon’s coup, France was still at war. In 1799, Britain, Austria, and Russia joined forces with one goal in mind, to drive Napoleon from power. Once again, Napoleon rode from Paris at the head of his troops. Eventually, as a result of war and diplomacy, all three nations signed peace agreements with France. By 1802, Europe was at peace for the first time in ten years. Napoleon was free to focus his energies on restoring order in France. Napoleon once claimed that he had preserved the gains of the revolution. Since he destroyed the republican form of government when he took power, how could Napoleon make this assertion? As we look at Napoleon’s domestic policies, it will be possible to judge whether the emperor’s claims had any merit. One of Napoleon’s first moves at home was to establish peace with the Catholic Church, the oldest enemy of the revolution. In matters of religion, Napoleon himself was a man of the Enlightenment. He believed in reason and felt that religion was at most a social convenience. Since most of the French were Catholic, Napoleon felt it was good policy to mend relations with the Church. In 1801 Napoleon came to an agreement with the pope, which recognized Catholicism as the religion of a majority of the French people. In return, the pope would not ask for the return of church lands seized in the revolution.

Plebiscite / Lycees Plebiscite – “Vote of the People”; In 1800 a plebiscite was

Plebiscite / Lycees Plebiscite – “Vote of the People”; In 1800 a plebiscite was held in France to approve a new constitution with Napoleon as leader. Desperate for strong leadership, the people voted overwhelmingly in favor of Napoleon and the constitution. Lycees – “Government-run public schools”; In order to provide the government with trained officials, Napoleon established lycees which were open to male students of all backgrounds. Graduates were appointed to public office on the basis of merit rather than family connections. Napoleon did not try to return the nation to the days of Louis XVI. Rather, he kept many of the changes that had come with the Revolution. In general, he supported laws that would both strengthen the central government and achieve some of the goals of the Revolution. His first task was to get the economy on a solid footing. Napoleon set up an efficient method of tax collection and established a national banking system. In addition to ensuring the government a steady supply of tax money, these actions promoted sound financial management and better control of the economy. Napoleon also took steps to end corruption and inefficiency in government. He dismissed corrupt officials and, in order to provide the government with trained officials, set up lycees. Closure Question #2: Napoleon had to deal with forces both inside and outside the French Empire. In your judgment, which area was more important to control?

Empire Napoleonic Code - Introduced in 1804, the code gave France a uniform set

Empire Napoleonic Code - Introduced in 1804, the code gave France a uniform set of laws and guaranteed equality of all men before the law, but restricted women’s rights. French Empire – From 1805 to 1807, Napoleon’s Grand Army defeated the Austrian, Prussian, and Russian armies. From 1807 to 1812, Napoleon was the master of Europe. His Grand Empire was composed of 3 major parts: the French Empire, dependent states, and allied states. The French Empire was the inner core of the Grand Empire. It consisted of an enlarged France extending to the Rhine in the east and including the western half of Italy north of Rome. Dependent states were kingdoms ruled by relatives of Napoleon. Eventually these included Spain, Holland, the kingdom of Italy, the Swiss Republic, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, & the Confederation of the Rhine – a union of all German states except Austria and Prussia. Allied states were countries defeated by Napoleon & then forced to join his struggle against Britain. These states included Prussia, Austria, Russia, & Sweden. Napoleon’s most famous domestic achievement was to codify the laws. Before the revolution, France had almost 300 different legal systems. During the revolution, efforts were made to prepare a single law code for the entire nation. However, the work was not completed until Napoleon’s reign. Seven law codes were created, but the most important was the Civil Code, or Napoleonic Code, introduced in 1804. It preserved many of the principles that the revolutionaries had fought for: equality of all citizens before the law; the right of the individual to choose a profession; religious toleration; and the abolition of serfdom and all feudal obligations.

Battle of Trafalgar (1805) In his drive for European control, Trafalgar was the only

Battle of Trafalgar (1805) In his drive for European control, Trafalgar was the only defeat suffered by Napoleon. The battle took place off the southwest coast of Spain between the naval forces of the British and French. British commander Horatio Nelson split the larger French fleet, capturing many ships in ensuring the supremacy of the British navy. This battle prevented Napoleon from conquering Britain. Napoleon was never able to conquer Great Britain because of its sea power, which made it almost invulnerable. Napoleon hoped to invade Britain, but the British defeated the combined French. Spanish fleet at Trafalgar in 1805. Napoleon then turned to his Continental System to defeat Britain, which attempted to prevent British goods from being sold in European markets, but this failed as well. Napoleon’s true downfall began in 1812 when he decided to invade Russia. He knew the risks in invading such a large country, but he also knew that if he did not punish the Russians for ignoring the Continental System, other nations would follow suit. In June 1812, 600, 000 soldiers entered Russia. Napoleon’s hopes depended on a quick victory. The Russian forces, however, refused to do battle. Instead they retreated for hundreds of miles. As they retreated they burned their own villages and countryside to keep Napoleon’s army from finding food. When the Grand Army finally reached Moscow, they found the city ablaze. Lacking food and supplies for his army, Napoleon abandoned the Russian capital in late October. Retreating through the Russian winter, fewer than 40, 000 of the original 600, 000 soldiers arrived back in Poland in January 1813. Closure Question #3: In your opinion, was Napoleon the creator or the creation of his times? Explain your answer.

Closure Assignment #6 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from

Closure Assignment #6 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 23, Section 3: 1. What personal qualities/achievements gained Napoleon so much popular support? (At least 2) 2. Napoleon had to deal with forces both inside and outside the French Empire. In your judgment, which area was more important to control? 3. If your opinion, was Napoleon the creator or the creation of his times? Explain your answer.

Blockade / Continental System Blockade – A forcible closing of ports. In November 1806

Blockade / Continental System Blockade – A forcible closing of ports. In November 1806 Napoleon set up a blockade to prevent all trade and communication between Great Britain and other European Nations. Continental System – Term used by Napoleon to describe his blockade. He believed that by limiting European contact with Great Britain he would make continental Europe more self-sufficient and destroy Great Britain’s trade-based economy. Napoleon’s blockade, however, was not nearly tight enough. Aided by the British, smugglers managed to bring cargo from Britain into Europe. At times, Napoleon’s allies also disregarded the blockade. Even members of Napoleon’s family defied the policy, including his brother Louis, whom he had made king of Holland. While the blockade weakened British trade, it did not destroy it. In addition, Britain responded with its own blockade. And because the British had a stronger navy, they were better able than the French to make the blockade work. To enforce the blockade, the British navy stopped neutral ships bound for the continent and forced them to sail to a British port to be searched and taxed. American ships were among those stopped by the British navy. Angered, the U. S. congress declared war on Britain in 1812. Even though the War of 1812 lasted two years, it was only a minor inconvenience to Britain in its struggle with Napoleon. Closure Question #1: Why did people in other European countries resist Napoleon’s efforts to build an empire?

Guerrillas / Peninsular War Guerrillas – Fighters which work in small groups to ambush

Guerrillas / Peninsular War Guerrillas – Fighters which work in small groups to ambush an enemy and then flee into hiding; From 1808 to 1814, Spanish guerrillas struck at French armies in Spain, weakening French control of the country. Peninsula War – Conflict between France and the combined forces of Spain and England. In the conflict Napoleon lost 300, 000 men. Like the Spanish guerrillas, Germans and Italians and other conquered peoples turned against the French. In Spain and elsewhere, nationalism, or loyalty to one’s own country, was becoming a powerful weapon against Napoleon. People who had at first welcomed the French as their liberators now felt abused by a foreign conqueror. Napoleon’s most disastrous mistake of all came in 1812. Even though Alexander I had become Napoleon’s ally, the Russian czar refused to stop selling grain to Britain. In addition, the French and Russian rulers suspected each other of having competing designs on Poland. Because of this breakdown in their alliance, Napoleon decided to invade Russia. Closure Question #1: Why did people in other European countries resist Napoleon’s efforts to build an empire?

Scorched-Earth Policy The practice of burning grain fields, slaughtering livestock and destroying anything that

Scorched-Earth Policy The practice of burning grain fields, slaughtering livestock and destroying anything that could be of use to an invading army before they arrive. During the French invasion into Russia in 1812 the Russians employed a scorched-earth policy, leading to starvation among Napoleon’s army. On September 7 th, 1812, the Russian and French armies finally clashed in the Battle of Borodino. After several hours of indecisive fighting, the Russians fell back, allowing Napoleon to move on Moscow. When Napoleon entered Moscow seven days later, the city was in flames. Rather than surrender Russia’s holy city to the French, Alexander had destroyed it. Napoleon stayed in the ruined city until the middle of October, when he decided to turn back toward France. As the snows – and the temperature – began to fall in early November, Russian raiders mercilessly attacked Napoleon’s ragged, retreating army. Many soldiers were killed in these clashes or died of their wounds. Still more dropped in their tracks from exhaustion, hunger, and cold. Finally, in the middle of December, the last survivors straggled out of Russia. The retreat from Moscow had devastated the Grand Army – only 10, 000 solders were left to fight of the 420, 000 that had originally set off on the invasion. Napoleon’s enemies were quick to take advantage of his weakness. Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Sweden joined forces against him. Austria also declared war on Napoleon, despite his marriage to Marie Louise. All of the main powers of Europe were now at war with France. Closure Question #1: Why did people in other European countries resist Napoleon’s efforts to build an empire?

Waterloo / Hundred Days – Napoleon’s last bid for power; after being defeated by

Waterloo / Hundred Days – Napoleon’s last bid for power; after being defeated by a combined European army in 1814 Napoleon had accepted exile on the island of Elba. Upon hearing of French unhappiness in 1815 with their newly appointed king, Louis XVIII, Napoleon escaped to Paris, where he was welcomed by thousands of volunteers who re-joined his army and made him Emperor of France. Waterloo – Location in Belgium at which, on June 18 th, 1815, the Duke of Wellington, commander of a combined British and Prussian army, defeated Napoleon’s army, leading to Napoleon’s exile on the island of St. Helena. Taking no chances following Napoleon’s second defeat, the British shipped Napoleon to St. Helena, a remote island in the South Atlantic. There, he lived in lonely exile for six years, writing his memoirs. He died in 1821 of a stomach ailment, perhaps cancer. Without doubt, Napoleon was a military genius and brilliant administrator. Yet all his victories and other achievements must be measured against the millions of lives that were lost in his wars. The French writer Alexis de. Tocqueville summed up Napoleon’s character by saying, “He was as great as a man can be without virtue. ” Napoleon’s defeat opened the door for the freed European countries to establish a new order. Closure Question #2: Do you think that Napoleon was a great leader? Explain.

Congress of Vienna / Klemens von Metternich Congress of Vienna - Meeting of European

Congress of Vienna / Klemens von Metternich Congress of Vienna - Meeting of European allies – Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia – who defeated Napoleon in 1814 to arrange a final peace settlement. Klemens von Metternich – Austrian foreign minister and the most influential leader at the Congress of Vienna; von Metternich’s idea that lawful monarchs from royal families that ruled before Napoleon should be restored to their thrones, was accepted by the Congress of Vienna. Practical considerations of power were addressed at the Congress of Vienna. The great powers rearranged territories in Europe, believing that this would form a new balance of power. The powers at Vienna wanted to keep any one country from dominating Europe. This meant balancing political and military forces that guaranteed the independence of the great powers. To balance Russian territorial gains, for example, new territories were given to Prussia and Austria. The arrangements worked out at the Congress of Vienna were a victory for rulers who wanted to contain the forces of change that the French Revolution had unleashed. These rulers, like Metternich, believed in the political philosophy known as conservatism. Conservatism is based on tradition and a belief in the value of social stability. Most conservatives at that time favored obedience to political authority. They also believed that organized religion was crucial to keep order in society. Conservatives hated revolutions and were unwilling to accept demands from people who wanted either individual rights or representative governments. To maintain the new balance of power, Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria (and later France) agreed to meet at times. The purpose of these conferences was to take steps needed to maintain peace in Europe. These meetings came to be called the Concert of Europe.

Balance of Power / Legitimacy Balance of Power – An international political environment in

Balance of Power / Legitimacy Balance of Power – An international political environment in which no country is threatened by another country. Establishing a balance of power in Europe was a key goal of the Congress of Vienna. Legitimacy – The belief that the traditional rulers of European nations should maintain their power; At Vienna European powers decided that the ruling families of countries, such as France and Spain, which had been removed from their throne by Napoleon should be restored to power. Metternich distrusted the democratic ideals of the French Revolution. Like most other European aristocrats, he felt that Napoleon’s behavior had been a natural outcome of experiments with democracy. Metternich wanted to keep things as they were and remarked, “The first and greatest concern for the immense majority of every nation is the stability of laws – never their change. ” Metternich had three goals at the Congress of Vienna. First, he wanted to prevent future French aggression by surrounding France with strong countries. Second, he wanted to restore a balance of power. Third, he wanted to restore Europe’s royal families to the thrones they had held before Napoleon’s conquests. Closure Question #3: What do you think is meant by the statement that the French Revolution let the “genie out of the bottle”?

Holy Alliance / Concert of Europe Holy Alliance – Agreement signed by King Frederick

Holy Alliance / Concert of Europe Holy Alliance – Agreement signed by King Frederick William III of Prussia, Czar Alexander I of Russia, and Emperor Francis I of Austria in which they pledged to base their relations with other nations on Christian principles in order to combat the forces of revolution. Concert of Europe – A series of alliances devised by Metternich which ensured that nations would help each other if any revolutions broke out. The Congress of Vienna was a victory for conservatives. Kings and princes resumed power in country after country, in keeping with Metternich’s goals. Nevertheless, there were important differences from one country to another. Britain and France now had constitutional monarchies. Generally speaking, however, the governments in Eastern and Central Europe were more conservative. The rulers of Russia, Prussia, and Austria were absolute monarchs. Across Europe, conservatives held firm control of the governments, but they could not contain the ideas that had emerged during the French Revolution. France after 1815 was deeply divided politically. Conservatives were happy with the monarchy of Louis XVII and were determined to make it last. Liberals, however, wanted the king to share more power with the legislature. And many people in the lower classes remained committed to the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. Similarly, in other countries there was an explosive mixture of ideas and factions that would contribute directly to revolutions in 1830 and 1848. Closure Question #3: What do you think is meant by the statement that the French Revolution let the “genie out of the bottle”?

Closure Assignment #7 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from

Closure Assignment #7 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 23, Sections 4 & 5: 1. Why did people in other European countries resist Napoleon’s efforts to build an empire? 2. Do you think that Napoleon was a great leader? Explain. 3. What do you think is meant by the statement that the French Revolution let the “genie out of the bottle”?