AP Human Geography Key Concept Review Geography as

AP Human Geography Key Concept Review

Geography as Field of Study û Geography “geo” - “the earth” û “graphein” - “to write” û Cartography - art & science of map-making û Developed early by Greeks, Romans, Chinese, Arabs û

Names in Geography û Eratosthenes - Greek scholar û û Ptolemy - Greek scholar û û Used geometry; accurately calculated circumference of earth Developed global grid system forerunner to latitude & longitude Idrisi - Arab geographer û Gathered maps, consulted mariners & travelers, went on scientific expeditions

Names in Geography û Immanuel Kant - defined geography as study of interrelated spatial patterns û û George Perkins Marsh û û Description & explanation of similarities & differences between regions Focused on impact of human actions on natural environment Carl Sauer - cultural landscapes û C. L. =product of interactions between humans & their environments

Types of Geography û û û Physical Political Human - Where are people? How are they alike and different? How do they interact? How do they change the natural landscapes, and how do they use them? Urban Environmental

Key Geographical Skills Spatial Perspective - the way places and things are arranged and organized on earth’s surface û Absolute Location û Meridians, parallels, latitude, longitude û Greenwich, England û û Relative Location

Use of Maps Reference Material - tool for storing information û Communications/education - often thematic - can explain spatial perspective to others ex. Soil types û Contour Map - topography û

Map Projections Globe - only accurate representation of earth û “All maps lie flat and all flat maps lie. ” û û distortion Mercator - created for navigating ships across Atlantic Ocean; direction is true; distortion towards poles û Robinson - good projection for general use; distortion greatest at poles û Peters - keeps land masses equal in area; shapes distorted û

Scale Size of unit studied - local, regional, global? Ex. drought û Map Scale û Mathematical relationship between size of area on map & actual size on surface of earth û Large scale maps = more details û û û 1/24 Small scale maps = less details û 1/24, 000

Time Zones Use longitude to determine û 180 degrees east and west of prime meridian, runs through Greenwich, England (set by international agreement) û 15 degrees apart - 24 sections - 1 hour each û Encouraged by creation of railroads û

“Place” û û û =unique location of a geographic feature Place name - toponyms Site Situation Absolute location Pattern = linear vs. centralized vs. random vs. grid/rectilinear û Ordinance of 1785

Regions Formal/Uniform - similarities in physical or cultural features û Functional/Nodal - organized around nodes or cores û û û Core vs. periphery Perceptual/Vernacular - places people believe to exist a part of their cultural identity

Space-Time Compression Describes changes that rapid connections among places and regions have brought û First transportation and communication û Now television and computers û Impact of globalization û

Geographic Technologies û GIS - Geographic Information System û û computer system that can layer captured data GPS - Global Positioning System û Uses series of satellites, tracking stations, and receivers to determine precise absolute locations on earth

Population Unit Two

Demography Study of population û Population geography = number, composition, & distribution of human beings on earth’s surface û Follow growth and movement of population û

Distribution, Density & Scale û Distribution - arrangement of locations on earth where people live û û Dot maps Population density - # of people in a given area of land 90% of people live north of equator û More than 1/2 of all people live on 5% of land 9/10 on less than 20% û Most people live close to sea level û 2/3 of world lives within 300 miles of ocean û

Density û Arithmetic (crude) û û Total number of people divided by total land area Physiological population û Total number of people divided by arable land

Carrying Capacity Number of people an area can support on a sustained basis û Farmers using irrigation & fertilizers support more people û Industrial societies import raw materials & export manufactured goods û

Population Pyramids Represents a population’s age & sex composition û Factors affecting shape: û û û Health care War Availability of birth control Cultural values Level of economic development

Population Concentrations û û û 2/3 of world pop in 4 regions: East Asia - 1/5 of world Southeast Asia - 500 million Europe - primarily urban

Race and Ethnicity Race - category composed of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important û Ethnicity - less based on physical characteristics & emphasizes a shared cultural heritage, such as language, religion, and customs û Important because people tend to live in areas with people of same race or ethnicity û

Population Growth & Decline Little pop growth until mid-18 th century û Agricultural or Neolithic Revolution û Until then, doubling rate was very long û Birth rates and death rates were high û û 1750 Industrial Revolution - England Population explosion û Doubling time has dropped fast û

Theories of Population Growth Zero population growth movement - goal to level off world’s pop growth to ensure earth can sustain its inhabitants û Thomas Malthus û Food growing arithmetically vs. pop growing exponentially û Neo-Malthusians, The Population Bomb, Paul Ehrlich, drove international efforts using birth control and family planning û

The Vocabulary of Population Theory û û û û CBR TFR Demographic momentum CDR IMR NIR Life expectancy

Demographic Transition Theory û Stage 1 - pre-industrial, agrarian societies û û High CBR and CDR Stage 2 - industrialization High CBR, lower CDR û By mid 19 th century - epidemiological revolution aka mortality revolution û û Stage 3 - mature industrial economy û û CBR drops, CDR low Stage 4 - post-industrial economy CBR continues to fall and CDR low û More women in workforce û Children expensive û Extensive education needed to fill post-industrial jobs û

Population and Natural Hazards Climate, drought, hurricanes, typhoons, tsunamis û Malthus’ “negative checks” - famine and disease û Globalization has increased spread of communicable diseases û AIDS û Asian bird flu û Pandemic = widespread epidemic û Swine flu û

Population Policies Expansive policies - like Mao Zedong’s û Restrictive policies û û China - Deng Xiaoping One child policy û Female infanticide û û India - democracy’s problems Family planning û Rural families û Indira Gandhi û

International Policy Efforts 1994 International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, Egypt - agreed that improving the status of women is essential to population control û 1995 UN Fourth World Conference in Beijing, China - agreed that women needed to control fertility allowing them to take advantage of educational and employment opportunities û

Population Movement û û û Circulation = our short-term repetitive movements in our days Migration = involves a permanent move to a new location, within a country or to another country Demographic equation = summarizes population change over time in an area by combining natural change (death rate subtracted from birth rate) and the net migration Emigration - migration FROM a location Immigration - migration TO a location

Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration British demographer û Wrote 11 migration laws û Most immigrants move short distance û Distance decay - decline of activity or function with increasing distance from point of origin û Step migration - long-distance migration done in stages û Intervening opportunities - those planning to go long distances find other opportunities before reaching final destination û

Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration Migrants moving longer distances tend to choose cities as destinations û Each migration flow produces a counterflow; ex. When one group moves in to neighborhood, another group moves in û Families less likely to make international moves; single males more likely û

Gravity Model Inverse relationship between the volume of migration and the distance between source and destination û A large city has a greater gravitational pull than a small one, but it still tends to pull people that live closer rather than farther away û

Reasons for Migration Push factor = encourages people to move û Pull factor = attracts people to a region û

Economic Push-Pull Factors û Push û Pull

Cultural Push-Pull Factors û Push û Pull

Environmental Push-Pull Factors û Push û Pull

Major Migrations at Different Scales Asia, Latin America and Africa have net outmigration û North America. Europe, and Oceania jave net inmigration û Largest flows are: û Asia to Europe û Asia to North America û South America to North America û

U. S. Immigration Patterns û Three Main Eras: Initial settlement of colonies û Emigration from Europe û Immigration since 1945 û

Initial Settlement of Colonies û û û About 1 million Europeans came before 1776 Another 1 million by 1840 Majority from Britain Others from Netherlands, Sweden, France, Germany, Iberian Peninsula 18 th century - 400, 000 African slaves brought over

Emigration from Europe 19 th-20 th century migration one of most significant in history û 75 million departed for Americas between 18351935 û Largest number to USA û Three waves: û 1840 s-1850 s - 2 largest groups Irish & Germans û Late 1800 s - 1870 s-1890 s - 75% NW Europe; Germans & Irish continued & Scandinavians; pull factor Industrial Revolution û Early 1900 s- peak levels 1910; many from Southern and Eastern Europe, esp. Italy, Russia, Austria. Hungary û

Immigration since 1945 û û û Restrictions against Asians lifted in 1960 s: China, Philippines, India, Vietnam Many came as refugees Many went to Canada Another major source is Latin America with Mexico topping 8 million 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act government issued visas to several hundred thousand people who had previously entered illegally

Intraregional Migrations Within USA, African-Americans began migrating from South to North during WWI and in the 1940 s; 1970 s countertrend of African Americans moving back South û Dislocation due to ethnic strife, war, or natural disasters û South Asia - Afghanistan - Pakistan û Southeast Asia - Vietnam - Cambodia û Balkans - collapse of Yugoslavia û Sub-Saharan Africa - Rwanda, Sudan û

Migration Selectivity û =Tendency for certain types of people to move influenced by 1. Age - young people, 18 -30 and their children û 2. Education - higher levels of education more likely to migrate long distances; follow one’s career in professions; danger of brain drains û 3. Kinship and friendship ties - chain migration; ethnic neighborhoods such as “Little Italies” and “Chinatowns” û

Short Term Circulation & Activity Space - area in which an individual moves about as he or she pursues regular, day-to-day activities û Factors affecting activity spaces: û Age group - younger by foot/bicycle; older by car; retired activity space shrinks û Ability to travel - suburbs vs. city; LDC vs. MDC; income level û Opportunities to travel - self-sufficient families, poverty, & physical isolation reduce awareness space û

Space-Time Prism All people live within a space-time prism that sets the limits for their activities û They have only so much time to be mobile and their space is limited by their ability to move û

Cultural Patterns and Processes Unit Three

Basic Definitions: Cultural landscape - modification of the natural landscape by human activities û Cultural geography - transformation of the land ways that humans interact with the environment û Cultural ecology - studies relationship between natural environment and culture û

Schools of Thought in Cultural Geography û Environmental determinism - physical environment actively shapes cultures so that human responses are almost completely molded by environment û Possibilism - cultural heritage is at least as important as physical environment in shaping human behavior û Environmental perception - emphasizes importance of human perception of environment rather than actual character of the land; shaped by culture û Cultural determinism - human culture ultimately more important than physical environment in shaping human actions

Concepts of Culture = mix of values, beliefs, behaviors, & material objects that together form a people’s way of life û Non-material culture = abstract concepts of values, beliefs, behaviors û û Values = culturally-defined standards that guide way people assess desirability, goodness and beauty & serve as guidelines for moral living û Beliefs = specific statements people hold to be true, almost always based on values û Material Culture = includes wide range of concrete human creations = artifacts

Cultural Hearths Areas where civilizations first began that radiated the customs, innovations, and ideologies that culturally transformed the world û Developed in SW Asia, North Africa, South Asia, East Asia - river valleys û

Cultural Diffusion û Expansion diffusion Contagious diffusion û Hierarchical diffusion û Stimulus diffusion û û Relocation diffusion

û û û Acculturation Assimilation Transculturation Ethnocentrism Cultural relativism Syncretism

Language = key to culture =systematic means of communicating ideas and feelings through the use of signs, gestures, marks, or vocal sounds û Also allows for continuity of culture (cultural transmission) û Writing invented 5000 years ago û Most people illiterate until 20 th century û

Languages Currently between 5000 -6000 languages û 10 languages spoken by 100+ million people: Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, German, Mandarin and Wu Chinese, English, Hindi, Bengali, Arabic, and Japanese û Linguistic fragmentation = many languages spoken especially by a relatively small number of people; ex. Eastern Europe û

Language Families Languages usually grouped into families with a shared, fairly distant origin û Indo-European family - languages spoken by half the world’s people, English most widely used; thought to be rooted in Black Sea area û Other families = Afro-Asiatic, Niger-Congo, Dravidian, American Indian û

Standard languages - recognized by govt and intellectual elite as norm for use in schools, govt, media, & other aspects of public life û Official languages - language endorsed & recognized by govt as one that everyone should know and use û Dialects - regional variants of a standard language û Isoglosses - boundaries within which words are spoken û

û û û Bilingualism - ability to communicate in 2 languages Multilingualism - ability to communicate in more than 2 languages Pidgin - amalgamation of languages that borrows words from several Creole - when a pidgin becomes the first language of a group of speakers Lingua franca - established language that comes to be spoken & understood over a large area Toponymy - study of place names û “town”, “ton”, “burgh”, or “ville” = town

Extinct Languages Ex. Gothic, died out in 16 th century û Some organizations try to preserve endangered languages like European Union’s Bureau of Lesser Used Languages; ex. Welsh in Wales, Quecha in Peru û

Religion Varies in its cultural influence û Distinguished from other belief systems by emphasis on the sacred and divine û Explains anything that surpasses the limits of human knowledge û Affected most societies in history but today has been replaced in some places by new ideas û Humanism - ability of humans to guide their own lives û Marxism - communism û

Religions Universalizing Religions = Christianity, Islam, Buddhism; 60% of world’s religions û Ethnic Religions = appeal primarily to one group of people living in one place; 24% of world’s religions û 16% of world identifies with no religion û

Divisions within religion Branches - large, basic divisions within religion û Denominations - divisions of branches that unite local groups in a single administrative body û Sects - relatively small groups that do not affiliate with the more mainstream denominations û

Christianity 2 billion followers û Most widespread distribution û Predominant religion in North & South America, Europe & Australia û 3 major branches: û Roman Catholic - 50% û Protestant - 25% û Eastern Orthodox - 10% û û Remaining 15% cannot be categorized into the 3 main branches

Religion in the United States Over 50% Protestant û 25% Catholic û 2% Jewish û û What about the Mormons?

Islam û û û 1. 3 billion adherents Predominant in Middle East from North Africa to Central Asia About half of world’s Muslims live in Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh and India Growing faster than Christianity 7 -10 million Muslims in USA Youngest of world religions

Divisions of Islam Sunni - 83% of Muslims; Indonesia largest concentration û Shiite - 16% of Muslims; concentrated in Iran, Pakistan, Iraq, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan and Yemen û Split occurred over the rightful successor of Muhammad û

Buddhism 365 million followers û Began on Indian subcontinent û Diffused through Silk Road and water routes across Indian Ocean to East and Southeast Asia û

3 Main Branches of Buddhism Mahayana - 56% - “Big Wheel” - East Asia û Theraveda - 38% - stricter adherence to Buddha’s teachings - Southeast Asia û Tantrayana - 6% - Tibet and Mongolia û Accurate count difficult because eastern religions don’t require followers to identify with one religion û

Other Universalizing Religions Sikhism - 21 million in Punjab region of India; combo Hinduism and Islam; founder Guru Nanak û Baha’i - founded in 1844, most in Iran, viewed by some Shiite Muslims as heretics, believe in a different prophet û

Ethnic Religions û û û Hinduism Confucianism Daoism Shintoism Judaism Shamanism

Spatial Impact Large cities - tallest, most centralized & elaborate buildings are often religious structures û Churches, mosques, temples, synagogues, pagodas û Bodhi trees in Buddhist areas û How religions dispose of the dead û

Popular & Folk Culture Folk = traditionally practiced by small, homogeneous groups living in isolated rural areas û Popular = found in large heterogeneous societies that are bonded by a common culture despite the many differences among the people that share it û

Folk Culture û û û û û Controlled by tradition Resistant to change Self-sufficient Example - Amish Relatively isolated Usually agricultural with limited technology Ex. Dutch wearing wooden shoes to adapt to working in wet fields below sea level Ex. Hindu taboos against eating beef Housing styles - based on environment materials

Housing Styles

Folk Music North American folk music began as immigrants carried their songs to the New World but became Americanized and then new songs about American experiences û Regions û Northern song section û Southern and Appalachian song area û Western song area û Black Song Style Family û

Popular Culture û û û Primarily urban based General mass of people conforming to and then abandoning ever-changing cultural trends Breeds homogeneity Pop culture takes on a national character Globalization of pop culture has caused resentment

Environmental impact of popular culture Uniform landscapes - fast food restaurants, chain hotels, gas stations, convenience stores; designed so residents and visitors immediately recognize purpose of building or name of company û Increased demand for natural resources - fads demand animal skins; consumption of food not efficient to produce (ex. 1 lb beef requires animal consuming 10 lbs grain; ratio for chicken 1 to 3) û Pollution - high volume of wastes û

Cultural Landscape = Cultural Identity Landscapes & values = Native Americans vs. Europeans û Landscapes & identity = people express culture by transforming elements into symbols like flags, slogans, religious icons, landscaping and house styles û û û Can clash like Muslim practice of never depicting Allah or Muhammad in drawings clashed with western freedom of press with Danish cartoon in 2005 Symbolic landscapes = all landscapes are symbolic - signs and images convey messages

Political Organization of Space Unit Four

Political geography û Study of the political organization of the planet, a constantly changing collage of countries that once were kingdoms or parts of empires

Concept of territoriality Efforts to control pieces of the earth’s surface for political and social ends û Political culture = the collection of political beliefs, values, practices and institutions that the government is based on û

Boundaries Invisible lines that mark the extent of a state’s territory and the control that its leaders have û Some set by physical features, some by negotiation or war û Frontiers historically separated states - a geographic zone where no state exercises power while a boundary is a thin, imaginary line û

Physical Boundaries Easy to see - make good boundaries û Rivers, lakes, oceans not usually used as boundaries - those set in water follow medianline principle û Ocean boundaries problematic because nations claim boundary out at sea, not at coast û 1983 The Law of the Sea standardized territorial limits for most countries at 12 nautical miles (14 land miles) and gave rights to fish and other marine life within 200 miles û

Cultural boundaries û û û Set by ethnic differences, primarily based on language and/or religion Aka consequent boundaries Ex. Indian and Pakistan Ex. Breakup of Austria-Hungary after WWI Ex. Balkanization & shatter belts

Territorial morphology û Describes the shapes, sizes, and relative locations of states

Shapes of states û û û Compact - distance from center to any boundary is about the same Prorupted - compact state with large projecting extension; proruptions often exist to get at a natural resource Elongated - long & narrow; often communication problems; is capital centralized? Fragmented - have several discontinuous pieces of territory (any archipelago qualifies) Perforated - a state that completely surrounds another one; ex. South Africa around Lesotho

Exclaves & Enclaves û Exclaves - small bits of territory that lie on coasts separated from the state or territory of another state û û Cabinda - part of Angola separated by the DRC Enclave - landlocked within another country so that the country totally surrounds it û Enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh is an exclave of Armenian Christians that are surrounded by Muslim Azerbaijan

Size of states û û û Largest - Russia - 6. 5 million square miles, 11% of earth’s surface Microstates - Liechtenstein, Andorra, San Marino Large size increases chance of having resources Small states tend to have a more homogeneous population Does size equal power?

Relative Location Significance of size and shape as factors in national well-being can be modified by state’s absolute & relative location û Landlocked states - lacking ocean frontage & surrounded by other states disadvantage (about 40 countries) û Good location example - Singapore û

Sovereignty - the ability of the state to carry out actions or policies within its borders independently either from the inside û Nationalism = national consciousness û

Boundary Disputes Since WWII, almost half of world’s sovereign states have been involved in border disputes with their neighbors û The more neighbors, the more possibility of disputes û 4 types of boundary disputes: û Positional/definitional disputes û Territorial disputes û Resource/allocational disputes û Functional/operational disputes û

û 4 types of boundary disputes: Positional/definitional disputes - states argue where border actually is (ex. US & Mexico, Argentina & Chile) û Territorial disputes - arise over ownership of region, usually around mutual borders; often people want to annex people ethnically related - irredentism - German invasion of Czechoslovakia & Poland û Resource/allocational disputes - involve natural resources like fertile farmland, mineral resources, or rich fishing areas that lie in border areas (ex. Iraq & Kuwait Persian Gulf War) û Functional/operational disputes - arise when neighboring states cannot agree on policies that apply in a border area (Ex. US-Mexico immigration/drug trafficking û

Evolution of the Nation-state û û û Ancient Egyptians ruled by pharaoh god-kings Ancient Mesopotamia & Greece organized into city-states Then the empires - Persian, Macedonian, Roman, Han Middle East caliphates Medieval European kingdoms - decentralized feudalism Largest organized political unit of all times Mongol Empire - ruled by a “khan” (universal ruler), a military leader supported by a web of kinship ties

The Nation-state Concept Today power is territorially organized into states (countries) that control what happens within their borders û State - defines who can and cannot use weapons & force and it sets rules as to how violence is used; sponsor armed forces û State - includes institutions - stable, long lasting organizations that help turn political ideas into policy û States exercise sovereignty - ability to carry out actions or policies within their borders independently from interference either from inside or outside û

Nation - group of people that is bound together by a common political identity û Nation-state - a state whose territorial extent coincides with that occupied by a distinct nation or people, or at least, whose population shares a general sense of unity and allegiance to a set of common values û Nationalism - sense of patriotism or pride an loyalty that individuals feel toward their nations û Examples: Armenians in Azerbaijan û

Variations of the Nation-state û û û Binational or multinational state - contains more than one nation Ex. Former USSR - multinational state Ex. Russia - has faced breakway movements like in Chechnya Stateless nations - people without a state Ex. Kurds - a nation of c. 20 million people divided among 6 states and dominant in none

The Organization in States û Important geographical clues to understanding how states are organized are Its core areas û Size and function of its capital cities û

Core Areas Most early nation-states grew from core areas, expanding outwards until they bumped up against other nation-states, causing them to define boundaries û State’s periphery (outlying areas) - town’s get smaller, factories fewer, & open land more common û Multicore states - may be problematic, especially if areas are ethnically diverse; ex. Nigeria (northern core primarily Muslim and southern core is Christian - capital moved from Lagos in south to Abuja near the geographic center of the state) û

The Capital City Usually houses the government and serves as economic and cultural center û Will be the primate city if no other city rivals it in size and influence û Washington DC is NOT primate city û Forward capital - capital city which serves as model for national objectives (Ex. Japan moved capital from Kyoto to Tokyo; Brazil moved capital from Rio de Janeiro to Brasilia û

Electoral Geography Electoral process - methods used in a country for selecting its leaders - in democracies an important connection between citizen and state û Electoral geography - study of how the spatial configuration of electoral districts and voting patterns reflect and influence social and political affairs û

USA 435 legislative districts, each electing one representative to lower house of legislature û Boundaries redrawn with census every ten years û Gerrymandering - political party in control usually attempts to redraw boundaries to improve chances of its supporters to win seats - derived from Eldridge Gerry û Minority/majority districting - rearranging districts to allow minority representative to be elected, just as controversial, North Carolina û

Colonialism & Imperialism 18 th century European political philosophers developed idea of modern state with basic concept that people owe allegiance to a state and people it represents rather than to its leader û Spread from 1789 to 19 th century û Colonies, dependent areas, were created & given fixed & recorded boundaries where none had formally existed û

û û û Colonialism - term before 19 th century Imperialism - term 19 th & 20 th centuries “the sun never sets on the British empire” Most African & Asian colonies became independent in the decades following WWII Ethiopia, Liberia, & Thailand only independent states

3 Types of states - internal geographic distribution of power Unitary system - concentrates all policy-making power in one central geographic place û Confederal system - spreads the power among many sub-units (such as states) and had weak central govt (ex. Articles of Confederation, Confederate States of America, modern Switzerland) û Federal system - divides power between central govt and sub-units (ex. USA, Canada, Australia) û

Supranational Organizations Cooperating groups of nations that operate on either a regional or international level û Ex. European Union, United Nations û

Centripetal Forces (unite) û û û Bind together people of a state Nationalism - encourages allegiance to a single country, encourages people to obey all laws Promoted by se of symbols, songs, flags, holidays Schools expected to instill society’s beliefs, values, behaviors Fast and efficient transportation can unify

Centrifugal Forces (fragment) û û û Destabilize country Tends to lose loyalty of citizens Weak institutions can fail to provide cohesive support that govt needs Nationalism can be strong among different ethnicities which can divide rather than unite; can lead to separatist movements Devolution - decentralization of decision-making to regional govts (ex. Britain has devolved power to Scottish and Wales parliaments to keep peace)

Devolutionary forces - ethnic forces Ethnonationalism - tendency for an ethnic group to see itself as a distinct nation with a right to autonomy or independence û Ex. French Canadians in Quebec û Ex. Yugoslavia in 1990 s û Ex. Canada - Inuit - creation of Nunavut separate territory in 1999 û

Devolutionary forces - economic forces Economic inequalities, especially regional ones û Italy - North wealthier than south, divided by “Ancona line” û Catalonia in northern Spain - makes up 17% of population but 40% of all industrial exports û

Devolutionary forces - spatial forces Most often occur on the margins of a state û Distance, remoteness, and peripheral location promote devolution û Ex. Puerto Rico û

Geopolitics Study of the spatial and territorial dimensions of power relationships within the global-territorial order û Friedrich Ratzel 19 th century - theorized a state compares to biological organism with a life cycle from birth to death with a predictable rise & fall of power û Sir Halford Mackinder concerned self with power relationships surrounding Britain’s global empire; believed a land-based power would ultimately rule world û û Heartland theory - stated the pivot area of the earth (Eurasia) holds resources, natural &human, to dominate globe - USSR

Geopolitics û Rimland theory - Nicholas Spykman 1944 Argued that the Eurasian rim, not its heart, held key to global power û Rimland = large swath of land encircling the heartland - China, Korea, Japan, Southeast Asia, India, Arabian Peninsula, Europe û

Supranational Organizations Concept began with Concert of Europe in early 1800 s û To League of Nations following WWI û To United Nations following WWII û

Supranational Organizations - UN û û û 1945 - 49 nations 2009 - 192 nations Can vote to send peacekeeping missions to “hotspots” & requires states to contribute military forces Security Council - 5 permanent members (US, Britain, France, China, Russia) - power of veto Many sub-organizations promote general welfare and monitor and aid world trade; ex. World Bank, IMF, UNESCO

Supranational Organizations Regional Organizations NATO vs. Warsaw Pact û OAS û Arab League û OAU û

Supranational Organizations - EU Promises to redefine the meaning of sovereignty û Countries of Europe are deeply affected by trend towards integration û Created to revitalize war torn Europe after WWII û Treaty of Maastricht established 3 pillars or spheres of authority û Trade & economic matters, Euro û Justice & home affairs û Common foreign & security policy û

Democratization û One essential requirement is competitive elections that are regular, free, fair û û Are Russia, Nigeria, Indonesia? Other characteristics: û û û Civil liberties Rule of law with equal treatment of citizens Neutrality of judiciary and other checks Open civil society allows citizens to lead private lives & mass media independent from govt Civilian control of military that restricts likelihood of military seizing control of govt

“Third Wave” of Democratization According to Samuel Huntington, 1970 s û 1 st wave - gradually over time û 2 nd wave - after WWII until early 1990 s û 3 rd wave - defeat or dictatorial or totalitarian rulers from South America to Eastern Europe to some parts of Africa û

Reasons for Democratization û û û Loss of legitimacy by both right and left wing authoritarian regimes Expansion of urban middle class in developing countries New emphasis on “human rights” by US and EU “snowball effect” - when one country in a region becomes democratic, it influences the others to do so (ex. Poland in 1980 s) One of greatest obstacles to democratization is poverty

Movement Toward Market Economies Old command economies are fading except in combination with market economies û What kind of market economy will be most successful? A mixed economy or a pure market economy û Marketization - state’s re-creation of market in which property, labor, goods and services can all function in a competitive environment to determine their value û Privatization - transfer of state-owned property to private ownership û

Revival of Ethnic or Cultural Politics Few political scientists had predicted that fragmentation would become increasingly important in world politics û Today politicization of religion - use of religious principles to promote political ends and vice versa) û Huntington argues that our most important & dangerous future conflicts will be based on clashes of civilizations, not on socioeconomic or ideological differences (the West, the Orthodox World (Russia), Islamic countries, Latin America, Africa, the Hindu world, the Confucian world, the Buddhist world, Japan) û

2010 FRQ - Can you do it? û û û û û 2. Since 1950 many states have faced challenges in developing a strong national identity. A. Using contemporary examples, explain how each of the following has contributed to the development of national identity and the strengthening of a state. 1. Economic development 2. Relocation of a state’s capital (since 1950) B. Using contemporary examples, explain how each of the following may detract from the development of national identity and weaken a state. 1. Ethnicity 2. Transportation infrastructure

Agriculture: Primary Economic Activities Unit Five

Economic Activities û Primary Sector - agriculture Draws raw materials from the natural environment û Includes agriculture, raising animals, fishing, forestry, an mining û Largest in low income, pre-industrial nations û û Secondary Sector -transforms raw materials to manufactured goods û û Grows quickly as societies industrialize Tertiary Sector - involves services rather than goods Dominates post-industrial societies û Construction, trade, finance, real estate, private services, govt, transportation û û Quaternary Sector - subset of tertiary û Research & development, management & administration, processing & disseminating info

Post-Industrial Societies û Ex. United Kingdom 1. 4% engaged in agriculture û 80. 4% in services û û Ex. United States. 6% in agriculture û 76. 8% in services û

Origin & Spread of Agriculture = deliberate tending of crops & livestock in order to produce food & fiber û Hunters & Gatherers - migrations depended on seasonal growth of plants and movement of game; left little imprint on the land û Neolithic Revolution - c. 8000 BCE û

Neolithic Revolution Developed in different agricultural hearths over a large period of time û Results: û û û Increase in reliable food supplies Rapid increase in total human population Job specialization Widening of gender differences Development of distinction between settled peoples and nomads

According to Carl Sauer…. Vegetative planting - earliest form of plant cultivation - new plants are produced from direct cloning from existing plants û Seed agriculture came later - production of plants through annual planting of seeds û

Vegetative Planting û û û Probably originated in diverse topography of Southeast Asia Included roots like taro & yams & tree crops like bananas and palm Diffused NE to China and Japan and west through India, SW Asia, tropical Africa, and Mediterranean 1 st domesticated animals probably dogs, pigs, chickens Other hearth - South America - manioc, sweet potatoes, arrowroot

Seed Agriculture û û û Sauer identified 3 hearths: western India, northern China, Ethiopia Diffused to SW Asia where wheat & barley domesticated, & domesticated cattle, sheep, goats Diffused to Europe & N Africa China hearth - millet Ethiopia hearth -millet & sorghum Southern Mexico (Squash & maize) & northern Peru hearth (beans, cotton, squash)

Innovations Contributing to Seed Agriculture û û û Irrigation - channeling of water to fields Plowing to loosen and turn soil Fencing to keep animals out of fields Fertilizing with plant & animal wastes Weeding Columbian Exchange helped spread crops between hemispheres

Second Agricultural Revolution Preceded Industrial revolution - late 1600 s early 1700 s Western Europe û Technology like Jethro Tull’s seed drill, Bakewell’s animal husbandry, development of better irrigation, dykes and dams - led to increased agricultural output û Led to increased population û Enclosure movement pushed small farmers to cities û

Subsistence Agriculture Most prevalent in LDCs û Produce just enough food to feed family, little to no surplus û

Commercial Agriculture û û û Production of food surpluses Most crops destined for sale outside farmer’s family Mostly in MDCs Generally not sold to consumers but to food-processing companies Called agribusiness

Comparison û Percentage of farmers in labor force SF - high percentage of people (many countries in Africa have more than 60% of their citizens engaged in agriculture) û Cf - less than 2% of all workers in US and Canada are farmers û û Use of machinery Sf - work done with hand tools and animal power û Cf - tractors, combines, planters largely replace manual labor; rely on transportation like railroads and trucks; use scientific advances like fertilizers, herbicides û û Farm size û Sf - small Cf - big

Subsistence Farming - Subregions Intensive Subsistence - large amount of output per acre but still subsistence; East and South Asia with wet, or low land rice, labor intensive; mostly done by hand û Shifting Cultivation - aka “slash and burn” or swidden agriculture - rain forests; extensive type of subsistence -requires frequent movements; large percentage of arable land on planet; intertillage common = growing various crops; done by hand û Pastoral Nomadism - follow the herds (sheep, cows, reindeer, camels, horses) - also extensive subsistence û

Commercial Agriculture: Subregions Mixed crop & livestock farming - most common form in west USA & Europe - raise crops & livestock on same land spread; practice crop rotation û Dairy farming - in areas outside large urban areas (milkshed) - New Zealand world’s largest producer of dairy products; disadvantage = need to buy all their feed, labor intensive û Grain farming - winter wheat area in Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma; spring wheat area Dakotas & Montana, Washington; “breadbaskets” û

Commercial Agriculture: Subregions Livestock ranching - practiced in arid or semi-arid regions where crops are impractical; much of western US; pampas and llanos û Mediterranean agriculture - also in California, Chile, South Africa, Australia; based on horticulture - growing of fruits, vegetables, flowers û

Commercial Agriculture: Subregions Commercial gardening and fruit farming - aka truck farming - mostly in SE US - apples, asparagus, cherries, lettuce, mushrooms, tomatoes - most sold for canning and freezing û Plantation farming - large farm that specializes in one or two crops; found in Latin America, Africa, Asia; called cash crops; colonial legacies û

Von Thunen’s Model: Rural Land Use Four Rings That Surround Market Centers: û Market gardening and dairy û û û Forest - in 19 th century towns surrounded by belts of forests û û Provided food for fuel and construction, bulky and heavy to transport Field crops û û Perishable products, expensive to deliver Less perishable crops like wheat; usually crops rotated from one year to the next Animal grazing Requires lots of space û Generally unprofitable to farm beyond this ring transportation costs too high û

Von Thunen’s Model: Rural Land Use Assumed a flat terrain, uniform soils, no significant barriers to transportation to market û Did acknowledge spatial arrangement could vary according to topography; rings would be arranged with hills and rivers in mind û First effort to analyze spatial character of economic activity û Identified the interplay of transportation costs and value of products on rural land use - at heart of location theory û

Global Patterns of Rural Land Use Regional scale -Organic products - more perishable, affects profit margin û Global scale - farmers far away from markets in North America and Western Europe less likely to grow highly perishable products or crops that are bulky and expensive to transport û Other factors that influence rural land use are: climate & soil conditions, farming methods, technology & historical influences (colonialism) û

Patterns of Settlement Intensity of crop cultivation affects density of housing in rural areas û Dispersed settlement pattern - in extensive agricultural areas û Nucleated settlement pattern - ex. Indonesia, villages quite close together with small surrounding fields; land use is intense but labor intensive û û Most common pattern of agricultural settlement

Housing Styles and Geography û û û Flood-prone areas - stilts Heavy snow - steep-sided roofs Nomads - light weight transportable materials Early Midwest settlers - sod houses Building materials: Wood - linked to distribution of forests û Brick - major element of modern construction û Stone û Wattle - refers to poles and sticks woven tightly together and then covered with mud; many African houses with thatched roofs û

Villages Usually describes a small number of people who live in a cluster of houses in a rural area û How big? Canada says <1000 people; USA says <2500 people û Types: û û û Round - houses circle around a central corral for animals with fields extending outside ring Walled - ancient days to protect villagers from attack Grid - straight street patterns in parallel and perpendicular lines Linear - follow major roads, lined with houses, businesses, and public buildings Cluster - more than one major road that they build along, & may have clusters around large public buildings

Influence of Land Ownership & Survey Techniques û û û Rules about property inheritance often determine land distribution In areas where primogeniture is practiced, all land passes to eldest son, resulting in land parcels that are large and tended individually Rectangular survey system - used by US govt to encourage settlers to disperse evenly across interior farmlands; section lines drawn in grids Metes & bounds - natural features are used to mark irregular parcels of land (eastern seaboard US) Long-lot survey system - divides land into narrow parcels that extend fro rivers, roads, canals (Quebec, Louisiana, Texas)

Modern Commercial Agriculture Roots in mercantilism- goal to benefit mother country by trading goods to accumulate precious metals & enrich country û Major products included cotton in Egypt, India, Sudan; tobacco and cotton in American colonies; sugar from Caribbean and Brazil û Colonial patterns still in effect in many places in modern world today û û Ex. Colombia still produces coffee & Guatemala still produces bananas

Diffusion of Industrial Agriculture I. A. = current stage of commercial agriculture resulting from shift of farm as center of production to a position as just one step in multiphase industrial process that begins on farms and ends on consumer’s table û Characterized by specialization - growing of specialized crops because they seem to be the most profitable û Farmers must weigh cost of production machinery, fuel, fertilizer, labor - and deal with unpredictable weather and/or disease û Agribusiness - contract farming - farmers sign contracts with buyer-processors û

Third Agricultural Revolution û û û Began mid-20 th century with industrial agriculture Methods - innovation in agricultural machinery, genetic technology, creation of new markets for consumption, and global trade Biotechnology - use of genetically altered crops and DNA manipulation in livestock in order to increase production IR 8 - hybrid rice 1930 s IR 36 - hybrid rice 1980 s - larger quantities, shorter growing cycle, more resistant to pests

Green Revolution û 1970 s - collection of new agricultural techniques involving 2 important practice: û Use of new higher-yield seeds û “miracle û û wheat seeds” Expanded use of fertilizers Resulted in agricultural production outpacing population growth by late 20 th century

Praise for Green Revolution û û û Agricultural production outpaces population growth - avoiding famines of past Nitrogen-based fertilizers greatly increased farm production Scientists continue to invent new food sources Higher productivity is primarily responsible for reducing dependency on imports in Asia New irrigation processes have greatly increased crop yields Agribusiness has increased productivity of cash crops, yielding profits for farmers and raising large amounts of basic crops to feed world

Criticism for Green Revolution û û û û Poor countries cannot always afford machinery, seeds, fertilizers Cost increases inequities between rich and poor countries Fertilizers also lead to groundwater pollution Many fishing areas are already over-fished Many people in sub-Saharan Africa are not getting enough to eat with millions of people facing famine Irrigation has led to groundwater depletion, negatively impacting water supplies for urban populations Agribusiness usually focuses on one type of crop instead of a diversity for a balanced diet, esp. in poor countries

Effects on Sub-Saharan Africa Famine still strong in Sub-Saharan Africa û Lack of resources to buy seed, fertilizer, machinery û Made worse by rapid population growth û Desertification - land has been overgrazed by animals, soils have been exhausted from overplanting; soil erosion û

Environmental Impact of Modern Agriculture û û û More land has been cleared & land is farmed more intensely Erosion - extends areas subject to flooding Changes in organic content of soil - more pressure on land to be farmed, more likely soil loses fertility Depletion of natural vegetation - such as when intensive farming or livestock move into semi-arid regions Presence of chemicals in soils & ground water caused a trend toward organic agriculture

Future Food Supplies Expansion of agricultural land -only 11% of world’s land area is currently cultivated but most of remaining land is not arable; urbanization cuts down on available land space û Increase in land productivity - Green Revolution has made this viable û Identification of new food sources - ocean? Taboos? û Improved distribution of food - top three exports are wheat, corn, rice û 1/2 of global corn exports and 1/4 of wheat exports come from US û Thailand leading exporter of rice û

2009 FRQ - Can you do it? 3. Agriculture in the United States has changed significantly in the past few decades. With respect to the past, present, and projected trends in agriculture shown in the diagram above, answer the following: û A. First identify and then explain TWO factors contributing to the steady decline in the number of dairy farms since 1970. û B. First identify and then explain TWO factors contributing to the increase in the number of organic farms since 1970. û

2008 FRQ - Yikes! Von Thunen’s model of land use and Burgess’model of land use are similar in appearance but different in their geographic setting. Analyze and discuss the two models in terms of each of the following: û A. For each of these models, identify the type of land use the model addresses û B. Identify two assumptions that are shared by both models û C. For each of these models, explain how relative location affects land-use patterns. û

Industrialization & Economic Development Unit Six

Economic Geography Study of impact of economic activities on the landscape û Investigates reasons behind locations of economic activities û Interested in changes that industrialization has brought to the cultural and social landscapes , especially in different patterns of wealth that it has created û Divide between rich and poor nations has become more pronounced û

Industrialization Process by which economic activities on earth’s surface evolved from producing basic, primary goods to using factories for mass-producing goods for consumption û Primary economic activity - directly extracts products from the earth û Secondary economic activities - industry that transforms raw materials into usable products, giving them usefulness û

Primary Sector - Agriculture Draws raw materials from natural environment û Agriculture, raising animals, fishing, forestry, mining û Largest in low-income, pre-industrial nations û First appeared 10, 000 years ago û

Secondary Sector - Industry Transforms raw materials into manufactured goods û Grows quickly as societies industrialize û Includes refining petroleum into gasoline and turning metals into tools and automobiles û

Tertiary Sector - Services û û û Involves services rather than goods Grows with industrialization and comes to dominate post-industrial societies Production based on computers and other electronic devices that create, process, store and apply information Society’s occupational structure changes significantly - construction, trade, finance, real estate, private services, govt, transportation Quaternary sector - subset of tertiary - research & development, management & administration, processing & disseminating info

Economic Indicators of Development û û û GDP - value of total output of goods and services produced in a country in a year GDP per capita - measure of average person’s contribution to generating a country’s wealth in a year >$20, 000 in MDCs C. $1000 in LDCs Related to social characteristics including literacy rates and education levels since economic development is dependent on a skilled workforce

Economic Indicators of Development Types of jobs - middle income nations have a greater mix of jobs from 3 sectors û Worker productivity - MDC workers are more productive than LDC workers because of access to technology productivity measured by the value added by each worker (subtract cost of raw materials and energy from gross value of product - higher value added in MDCs) û

Economic Indicators of Development Access to raw materials - Industrial Rev began in England because of its raw materials; also motivated imperialism û Availability of consumer goods - do people have the means to buy nonessential goods û

Theories of Economic Development û Modernization Model Cultural environment of Western Europe favored change in the late 18 th century û British model spread to rest of Europe and USA û Identifies tradition as greatest barrier to economic development û

Theories of Economic Development û Dependency Theory Puts primary responsibility for global poverty on rich nations û Holds that economic development of many countries in the world is blocked by the fact that industrialized nations exploit them û Roots of inequality in colonial era û Theory is outgrowth of Marxism û

Modernization Theory - Rostow’s Stages Traditional stage - lives centered around families, local communities, & religious beliefs; similar to lives of ancestors; limited wealth; subsistence farmers û Take-off stage - people experiment with producing goods for profit; something like an industrial revolution; urbanization increases; technology breakthroughs; greater individualism and risk taking û Drive to technological maturity - economic growth widely accepted; attaining higher living standards; economy diversifies as people can afford luxuries; poverty reduced; population growth reduced; international trade expands û High mass consumption - living standards raised; mass production encourages consumption of industrial products; high incomes; most workers in service sector û

Modernization Theory Claims û MDCs can help LDCs by encouraging them to control population growth, increase food production, & take advantage of industrial technology û Criticisms û It’s a justification fro capitalist systems to continue to exploit noncapitalist countries û Fails to recognize that rich countries often block development in poor countries û

Dependency Theory: Wallerstein’s Capitalist World Economy A global economic system that is based in high-income nations with market economies û Traced economic inequality among nations to colonial era when Europeans first took advantage of the wealth of world. û Divided countries into 3 types according to how they fit into global economy û

Dependency Theory 1. Core countries - rich nations that fuel world’s economy by taking raw materials from around world & channeling wealth to North America, Europe, Australia, Japan through multinational corporations that operate worldwide û 2. Countries of the periphery - low-income countries drawn into world economy by colonial exploitation, continue to support rich ones today by providing inexpensive labor and large market for industrial goods û 3. Countries of the semiperiphery - remaining countries of world somewhere in between û

According to Wallerstein…. World eco benefits rich societies & harms other countries by making them dependent on core countries û Perpetuated by narrow, export-oriented products such as oil, coffee, fruit û Lack industrial capacity so caught in cycle of selling inexpensive raw materials & buying expensive manufactured goods, spending more than they take in û Result high foreign debt û

According to Wallerstein, dependency theory Emphasizes that no country develops in isolation because global eco shapes destiny of all nations û Is this reality û

Growth & Diffusion of Industrialization û û û England mid 18 th century Textiles first James Watt - steam engine New industries transformed England’s landscape - urbanization spread Western Europe’s industrial success based also on ability to access raw materials through colonies; also had comparatively skilled laborers USA industrialization 1800 s - concentrated in Northeast

20 th Century Industrialization After WWI Change from coal as energy source to oil and natural gas û US and Europe increasingly turned to foreign countries vesting new power in countries with oil û Ex. Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, China, Russia, Kuwait, Iran, Mexico, Venezuela û

Evolution of Economic Cores & Peripheries Locational theory - explains locational pattern of economic activities by identifying factors that influence this pattern û Primary industry - develops around location of natural resources, such as industrial belt in British Midlands û Secondary industry - as transportation improves - less dependent on resource location û

Location of secondary industries depends on several factors: Variable costs - energy, labor, & transportation less expensive in some areas, encouraging industries to develop û Friction of distance - although secondary industry may transport raw materials to factories, the cost usually goes up the farther the distance of transport from source to factory. At some point, distance is too great for practical transportation û Distance decay - industries are more likely to serve markets of nearby places than those far away. As distance increases, business activity decreases until it becomes impractical to do business û

Weber’s Model for Location of Industries Alfred Weber developed model for location of secondary industries û Least cost theory - explained location of industries in terms of three factors: û Transportation - cost of moving raw materials to factory & finished products to the market; truck transportation cheapest over short distances; railroads most cost efficient over medium distances; ships cheapest long distances û Labor - cheap labor may make up for higher transportation costs û Agglomeration - when several industries cluster in one city, they can provide support by sharing talents, services, & facilities û û Deglomeration - exodus of businesses from crowded area

Locational Interdependence Theory û Influence on a firm’s locational decision by locations chosen by its competitors

2009 FRQ - Can you do it? A large proportion of urban residents in the megacities of the periphery of the world system live in squatter settlements. û A. Describe a typical location of squatter settlements within urban areas of megacities on the global periphery. û B. Describe two factors that contribute to the formation of squatter settlements. û C. Give a detailed account of THREE consequences of the rapid growth of squatter settlements. The three consequences you discuss may be social, economic, political or environmental û