AP Human Geography Key Concept Review Geography as

AP Human Geography Key Concept Review

Geography as Field of Study • Geography – “geo” - “the earth” – “graphein” - “to write” • Cartography - art & science of map-making • Developed early by Greeks, Romans, Chinese, Arabs

Names in Geography • Eratosthenes - Greek scholar – Used geometry; accurately calculated circumference of earth • Ptolemy - Greek scholar – Developed global grid system forerunner to latitude & longitude • Idrisi - Arab geographer – Gathered maps, consulted mariners & travelers, went on scientific expeditions

Names in Geography • Immanuel Kant - defined geography as study of interrelated spatial patterns – Description & explanation of similarities & differences between regions • George Perkins Marsh – Focused on impact of human actions on natural environment • Carl Sauer - cultural landscapes – C. L. =product of interactions between humans & their environments

Types of Geography • Physical • Political • Human - Where are people? How are they alike and different? How do they interact? How do they change the natural landscapes, and how do they use them? • Urban • Environmental

Key Geographical Skills • Spatial Perspective - the way places and things are arranged and organized on earth’s surface • Absolute Location – Meridians, parallels, latitude, longitude – Greenwich, England • Relative Location

Use of Maps • Reference Material - tool for storing information • Communications/education - often thematic can explain spatial perspective to others - ex. Soil types • Contour Map - topography

Map Projections • Globe - only accurate representation of earth • “All maps lie flat and all flat maps lie. ” – distortion • Mercator - created for navigating ships across Atlantic Ocean; direction is true; distortion towards poles • Robinson - good projection for general use; distortion greatest at poles • Peters - keeps land masses equal in area; shapes distorted

Scale • Size of unit studied - local, regional, global? Ex. drought • Map Scale – Mathematical relationship between size of area on map & actual size on surface of earth – Large scale maps = more details • 1/24 – Small scale maps = less details • 1/24, 000

Time Zones • Use longitude to determine • 180 degrees east and west of prime meridian, runs through Greenwich, England (set by international agreement) • 15 degrees apart - 24 sections - 1 hour each • Encouraged by creation of railroads

“Place” • • • =unique location of a geographic feature Place name - toponyms Site Situation Absolute location Pattern = linear vs. centralized vs. random vs. grid/rectilinear – Ordinance of 1785

Regions • Formal/Uniform - similarities in physical or cultural features • Functional/Nodal - organized around nodes or cores – Core vs. periphery • Perceptual/Vernacular - places people believe to exist a part of their cultural identity

Space-Time Compression • Describes changes that rapid connections among places and regions have brought • First transportation and communication • Now television and computers • Impact of globalization

Geographic Technologies • GIS - Geographic Information System – computer system that can layer captured data • GPS - Global Positioning System – Uses series of satellites, tracking stations, and receivers to determine precise absolute locations on earth

Population Unit Two

Demography • Study of population • Population geography = number, composition, & distribution of human beings on earth’s surface • Follow growth and movement of population

Distribution, Density & Scale • Distribution - arrangement of locations on earth where people live – Dot maps • Population density - # of people in a given area of land – 90% of people live north of equator – More than 1/2 of all people live on 5% of land 9/10 on less than 20% – Most people live close to sea level – 2/3 of world lives within 300 miles of ocean

Density • Arithmetic (crude) – Total number of people divided by total land area • Physiological population – Total number of people divided by arable land

Carrying Capacity • Number of people an area can support on a sustained basis • Farmers using irrigation & fertilizers support more people • Industrial societies import raw materials & export manufactured goods

Population Pyramids • Represents a population’s age & sex composition • Factors affecting shape: – – – Health care War Availability of birth control Cultural values Level of economic development

Population Concentrations • • • 2/3 of world pop in 4 regions: East Asia - 1/5 of world Southeast Asia - 500 million Europe - primarily urban

Race and Ethnicity • Race - category composed of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important • Ethnicity - less based on physical characteristics & emphasizes a shared cultural heritage, such as language, religion, and customs • Important because people tend to live in areas with people of same race or ethnicity

Population Growth & Decline • Little pop growth until mid-18 th century • Agricultural or Neolithic Revolution – Until then, doubling rate was very long – Birth rates and death rates were high • 1750 Industrial Revolution - England – Population explosion – Doubling time has dropped fast

Theories of Population Growth • Zero population growth movement - goal to level off world’s pop growth to ensure earth can sustain its inhabitants • Thomas Malthus – Food growing arithmetically vs. pop growing exponentially – Neo-Malthusians, The Population Bomb, Paul Ehrlich, drove international efforts using birth control and family planning

The Vocabulary of Population Theory • • CBR TFR Demographic momentum CDR IMR NIR Life expectancy

Demographic Transition Theory • Stage 1 - pre-industrial, agrarian societies – High CBR and CDR • Stage 2 - industrialization – High CBR, lower CDR – By mid 19 th century - epidemiological revolution aka mortality revolution • Stage 3 - mature industrial economy – CBR drops, CDR low • Stage 4 - post-industrial economy – – CBR continues to fall and CDR low More women in workforce Children expensive Extensive education needed to fill post-industrial jobs

Population and Natural Hazards • Climate, drought, hurricanes, typhoons, tsunamis • Malthus’ “negative checks” - famine and disease • Globalization has increased spread of communicable diseases – – AIDS Asian bird flu Pandemic = widespread epidemic Swine flu

Population Policies • Expansive policies - like Mao Zedong’s • Restrictive policies – China - Deng Xiaoping • One child policy • Female infanticide – India - democracy’s problems • Family planning • Rural families • Indira Gandhi

International Policy Efforts • 1994 International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, Egypt - agreed that improving the status of women is essential to population control • 1995 UN Fourth World Conference in Beijing, China agreed that women needed to control fertility allowing them to take advantage of educational and employment opportunities

Population Movement • Circulation = our short-term repetitive movements in our days • Migration = involves a permanent move to a new location, within a country or to another country • Demographic equation = summarizes population change over time in an area by combining natural change (death rate subtracted from birth rate) and the net migration • Emigration - migration FROM a location • Immigration - migration TO a location

Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration • British demographer • Wrote 11 migration laws • Most immigrants move short distance – Distance decay - decline of activity or function with increasing distance from point of origin – Step migration - long-distance migration done in stages – Intervening opportunities - those planning to go long distances find other opportunities before reaching final destination

Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration • Migrants moving longer distances tend to choose cities as destinations • Each migration flow produces a counter-flow; ex. When one group moves in to neighborhood, another group moves in • Families less likely to make international moves; single males more likely

Gravity Model • Inverse relationship between the volume of migration and the distance between source and destination • A large city has a greater gravitational pull than a small one, but it still tends to pull people that live closer rather than farther away

Reasons for Migration • Push factor = encourages people to move • Pull factor = attracts people to a region

Major Migrations at Different Scales • Asia, Latin America and Africa have net out-migration • North America. Europe, and Oceania jave net inmigration • Largest flows are: – Asia to Europe – Asia to North America – South America to North America

U. S. Immigration Patterns • Three Main Eras: – Initial settlement of colonies – Emigration from Europe – Immigration since 1945

Initial Settlement of Colonies About 1 million Europeans came before 1776 Another 1 million by 1840 Majority from Britain Others from Netherlands, Sweden, France, Germany, Iberian Peninsula • 18 th century - 400, 000 African slaves brought over • •

Emigration from Europe • 19 th-20 th century migration one of most significant in history • 75 million departed for Americas between 1835 -1935 • Largest number to USA • Three waves: – 1840 s-1850 s - 2 largest groups Irish & Germans – Late 1800 s - 1870 s-1890 s - 75% NW Europe; Germans & Irish continued & Scandinavians; pull factor Industrial Revolution – Early 1900 s- peak levels 1910; many from Southern and Eastern Europe, esp. Italy, Russia, Austria-Hungary

Immigration since 1945 • Restrictions against Asians lifted in 1960 s: China, Philippines, India, Vietnam • Many came as refugees • Many went to Canada • Another major source is Latin America with Mexico topping 8 million • 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act government issued visas to several hundred thousand people who had previously entered illegally

Intraregional Migrations • Within USA, African-Americans began migrating from South to North during WWI and in the 1940 s; 1970 s countertrend of African Americans moving back South • Dislocation due to ethnic strife, war, or natural disasters – – South Asia - Afghanistan - Pakistan Southeast Asia - Vietnam - Cambodia Balkans - collapse of Yugoslavia Sub-Saharan Africa - Rwanda, Sudan

Migration Selectivity • =Tendency for certain types of people to move influenced by – 1. Age - young people, 18 -30 and their children – 2. Education - higher levels of education more likely to migrate long distances; follow one’s career in professions; danger of brain drains – 3. Kinship and friendship ties - chain migration; ethnic neighborhoods such as “Little Italies” and “Chinatowns”

Short Term Circulation & Activity Space • Activity Space - area in which an individual moves about as he or she pursues regular, dayto-day activities • Factors affecting activity spaces: – Age group - younger by foot/bicycle; older by car; retired activity space shrinks – Ability to travel - suburbs vs. city; LDC vs. MDC; income level – Opportunities to travel - self-sufficient families, poverty, & physical isolation reduce awareness space

Space-Time Prism • All people live within a space-time prism that sets the limits for their activities • They have only so much time to be mobile and their space is limited by their ability to move

Cultural Patterns and Processes Unit Three

Basic Definitions: • Cultural landscape - modification of the natural landscape by human activities • Cultural geography - transformation of the land ways that humans interact with the environment • Cultural ecology - studies relationship between natural environment and culture

Schools of Thought in Cultural Geography • Environmental determinism - physical environment actively shapes cultures so that human responses are almost completely molded by environment • Possibilism - cultural heritage is at least as important as physical environment in shaping human behavior • Environmental perception - emphasizes importance of human perception of environment rather than actual character of the land; shaped by culture • Cultural determinism - human culture ultimately more important than physical environment in shaping human actions

Concepts of Culture • Culture = mix of values, beliefs, behaviors, & material objects that together form a people’s way of life • Non-material culture = abstract concepts of values, beliefs, behaviors – Values = culturally-defined standards that guide way people assess desirability, goodness and beauty & serve as guidelines for moral living – Beliefs = specific statements people hold to be true, almost always based on values • Material Culture = includes wide range of concrete human creations = artifacts

Cultural Hearths • Areas where civilizations first began that radiated the customs, innovations, and ideologies that culturally transformed the world • Developed in SW Asia, North Africa, South Asia, East Asia - river valleys

Cultural Diffusion • Expansion diffusion – Contagious diffusion – Hierarchical diffusion – Stimulus diffusion • Relocation diffusion

• • • Acculturation Assimilation Transculturation Ethnocentrism Cultural relativism Syncretism

Language = key to culture • =systematic means of communicating ideas and feelings through the use of signs, gestures, marks, or vocal sounds • Also allows for continuity of culture (cultural transmission) • Writing invented 5000 years ago • Most people illiterate until 20 th century

Languages • Currently between 5000 -6000 languages • 10 languages spoken by 100+ million people: Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, German, Mandarin and Wu Chinese, English, Hindi, Bengali, Arabic, and Japanese • Linguistic fragmentation = many languages spoken especially by a relatively small number of people; ex. Eastern Europe

Language Families • Languages usually grouped into families with a shared, fairly distant origin • Indo-European family - languages spoken by half the world’s people, English most widely used; thought to be rooted in Black Sea area • Other families = Afro-Asiatic, Niger-Congo, Dravidian, American Indian

• Standard languages - recognized by govt and intellectual elite as norm for use in schools, govt, media, & other aspects of public life • Official languages - language endorsed & recognized by govt as one that everyone should know and use • Dialects - regional variants of a standard language • Isoglosses - boundaries within which words are spoken

• Bilingualism - ability to communicate in 2 languages • Multilingualism - ability to communicate in more than 2 languages • Pidgin - amalgamation of languages that borrows words from several • Creole - when a pidgin becomes the first language of a group of speakers • Lingua franca - established language that comes to be spoken & understood over a large area • Toponymy - study of place names – “town”, “ton”, “burgh”, or “ville” = town

Extinct Languages • Ex. Gothic, died out in 16 th century • Some organizations try to preserve endangered languages like European Union’s Bureau of Lesser Used Languages; ex. Welsh in Wales, Quecha in Peru

Religion • Varies in its cultural influence • Distinguished from other belief systems by emphasis on the sacred and divine • Explains anything that surpasses the limits of human knowledge • Affected most societies in history but today has been replaced in some places by new ideas – Humanism - ability of humans to guide their own lives – Marxism - communism

Religions • Universalizing Religions = Christianity, Islam, Buddhism; 60% of world’s religions • Ethnic Religions = appeal primarily to one group of people living in one place; 24% of world’s religions • 16% of world identifies with no religion

Divisions within religion • Branches - large, basic divisions within religion • Denominations - divisions of branches that unite local groups in a single administrative body • Sects - relatively small groups that do not affiliate with the more mainstream denominations

Christianity • 2 billion followers • Most widespread distribution • Predominant religion in North & South America, Europe & Australia • 3 major branches: – Roman Catholic - 50% – Protestant - 25% – Eastern Orthodox - 10% • Remaining 15% cannot be categorized into the 3 main branches

Religion in the United States • Over 50% Protestant • 25% Catholic • 2% Jewish • What about the Mormons?

Islam • 1. 3 billion adherents • Predominant in Middle East from North Africa to Central Asia • About half of world’s Muslims live in Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh and India • Growing faster than Christianity • 7 -10 million Muslims in USA • Youngest of world religions

Divisions of Islam • Sunni - 83% of Muslims; Indonesia largest concentration • Shiite - 16% of Muslims; concentrated in Iran, Pakistan, Iraq, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan and Yemen • Split occurred over the rightful successor of Muhammad

Buddhism • 365 million followers • Began on Indian subcontinent • Diffused through Silk Road and water routes across Indian Ocean to East and Southeast Asia

3 Main Branches of Buddhism • Mahayana - 56% - “Big Wheel” - East Asia • Theraveda - 38% - stricter adherence to Buddha’s teachings - Southeast Asia • Tantrayana - 6% - Tibet and Mongolia • Accurate count difficult because eastern religions don’t require followers to identify with one religion

Other Universalizing Religions • Sikhism - 21 million in Punjab region of India; combo Hinduism and Islam; founder Guru Nanak • Baha’i - founded in 1844, most in Iran, viewed by some Shiite Muslims as heretics, believe in a different prophet

Ethnic Religions • • • Hinduism Confucianism Daoism Shintoism Judaism Shamanism

Spatial Impact • Large cities - tallest, most centralized & elaborate buildings are often religious structures • Churches, mosques, temples, synagogues, pagodas • Bodhi trees in Buddhist areas • How religions dispose of the dead

Taboo? • - defined as: – a restriction on behavior imposed by a social custom. – COMMON TABOO ITEMS • FOODS, RELATIONSHIPS, LANGUAGE, OBSCENITY, ETC. . • RESEARCH- TABOO’S

Why Is Folk Culture Clustered? – Folk housing and the environment • Housing = a reflection of cultural heritage, current fashion, function, and the physical environment • most common building materials = wood &brick • Minor differences in the environment can produce very different house styles

Hearths of House Types Figure 4 -12

U. S. House Types (1945– 1990) Figure 4 -16

House Types in Four Western Chinese Communities Figure 4 -9

Popular & Folk Culture • Folk = traditionally practiced by small, homogeneous groups living in isolated rural areas • Popular = found in large heterogeneous societies that are bonded by a common culture despite the many differences among the people that share it

Folk Culture Controlled by tradition Resistant to change Self-sufficient Example - Amish Relatively isolated Usually agricultural with limited technology Ex. Dutch wearing wooden shoes to adapt to working in wet fields below sea level • Ex. Hindu taboos against eating beef • Housing styles - based on environment materials • •

Why Is Folk Culture Clustered? – Folk housing and the environment • Housing = a reflection of cultural heritage, current fashion, function, and the physical environment • most common building materials = wood &brick • Minor differences in the environment can produce very different house styles

Hearths of House Types Figure 4 -12

U. S. House Types (1945– 1990) Figure 4 -16

House Types in Four Western Chinese Communities Figure 4 -9

Folk Music • North American folk music began as immigrants carried their songs to the New World but became Americanized and then new songs about American experiences • Regions – Northern song section – Southern and Appalachian song area – Western song area – Black Song Style Family

Popular Culture • Primarily urban based • General mass of people conforming to and then abandoning ever-changing cultural trends • Breeds homogeneity • Pop culture takes on a national character • Globalization of pop culture has caused resentment

Environmental impact of popular culture • Uniform landscapes - fast food restaurants, chain hotels, gas stations, convenience stores; designed so residents and visitors immediately recognize purpose of building or name of company • Increased demand for natural resources - fads demand animal skins; consumption of food not efficient to produce (ex. 1 lb beef requires animal consuming 10 lbs grain; ratio for chicken 1 to 3) • Pollution - high volume of wastes

Cultural Landscape = Cultural Identity • Landscapes & values = Native Americans vs. Europeans • Landscapes & identity = people express culture by transforming elements into symbols like flags, slogans, religious icons, landscaping and house styles – Can clash like Muslim practice of never depicting Allah or Muhammad in drawings clashed with western freedom of press with Danish cartoon in 2005 • Symbolic landscapes = all landscapes are symbolic signs and images convey messages