AP European History Review Renaissance French Revolution Late

AP European History Review Renaissance – French Revolution

Late Middle Ages

Black Death and Social Crisis Famine and Population Little Ice Age • Drop in temp and change in weather patterns s Resulted in crop failures and famine Killed approx. 10% of European Population Famine led to chronic malnutrition s People were more susceptible to disease

The Black Death Bubonic plague • • Spread by rats carrying infected fleas Pneumonic plague s Deadlier version which spread to the lungs Spread of the Plague * The plague originated in Asia * Mongol troops came in contact with European trade routes * Flea infested rats came back to Italian port cities on merchant ships (1347) European Population declined by 25 -50% between 1347 and 1351

Life and Death: Reactions to the Plague Surrounded with death, some people began living for the moment Others thought the plague was punishment from God or the work of the Devil Flagellants – whipped themselves to win forgiveness from and angry God Blamed Jews for the spread of the disease • Pogroms – organized Jewish massacres

Noble Landlords and Peasants The Plague caused a severe labor shortage Led to a rise in wages (basic supply and demand) Population declined and so did demand for agriculture = drop in prices for agriculture Standard of living for nobles decreased while peasants increased English Parliament passed Statute of Laborers (1351) Attempted to limit wages to pre-plague levels Wage restrictions and government taxes angered the peasants

To what extent were climate and disease key factors in producing economic and social changes in the Late Middle Ages?

Political Instability Lord-serf relationship changed to wage earners Lord-vassal relationship changed from military service (think of knights) Paid scutage (money payments) Allowed monarchy to hire professional soldiers Created factions amongst nobles

Heirs to the French, English and German thrones were not clear descendents To gain support for their coronation, they had to offer favors, land money to noble factions for their support Paying for mercenary soldiers left the monarchies strapped for cash To generate money, they had to tax which required the approval of parliament in most cases. This opened the door for parliament to gain more power and prestige

Decline of the Church King Phillip IV of France tried to tax the French clergy Pope Boniface VIII said a secular ruler had no right to tax the clergy without the pope’s consent Unam Sanctam (1302) papal bull Statement of supremacy of the church over the state Pope Boniface VIII also excommunicated Phillip IV sent troops and captured Pope Boniface Italian nobles rescued the pope but he died shortly after King Phillip IV of France influenced the college of cardinals Elected Clement V as pope Clement V moved papal residence from Vatican City to Avignon

Papacy at Avignon Remained there for 72 years Created a specialized bureaucracy to obtain new revenue for the church Elected 134 new cardinals, 113 were French Avignon papacy became a symbol of church corruption

The Great Schism Catherine of Siena (a mystic) seemed to have convinced Pope Gregory XI to return to Rome He died soon after his return Italians pressured French cardinals to elect an Italian pope – Pope Urban VI French cardinals got home Elected Clement VII as pope Pope Clement VII returned to Avignon Great Schism 1378 -1417 Period with two popes Two popes split Europe along alliances England her allies – Rome Pope Urban VI France and her allies - Avignon Pope Clement VII Both factions increased taxation and corruption to raise revenue

What were the main causes of the Great Schism? What were the major results of this great political and religious conflict?

Vernacular Literature Latin was the language of the clergy and educated nobility Vernacular refers to the common regional language Dante - Divine Comedy Story of the soul’s progression to salvation 3 act poem – hell, purgatory, and heaven

What was the significance of artists writing in the vernacular language?

Renaissance

Meaning and Characteristics of the Italian Renaissance = Rebirth of antiquity – Greco-Roman civilization Jacob Burkhardt Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860) Portrayed Italy as the birthplace of the modern world Urban Society City-states dominated political, economic, & social life Age of Recovery Effects of Black Death, political disorder, economic recession Emphasis on individual ability New social ideal of a well rounded or universal person Wealthy upper class, not a mass movement

Machiavelli and the New Statecraft Niccolo Machiavelli (1469 – 1527) The Prince (1513) Realistic examination political rule Acquisition, maintenance and expansion of political power Prince should act on behalf of the state, not his conscience Cesare Borgia • Pope Alexander VI son • Perfect model for the The Prince

How did Machiavelli deal with the issue of political power?

The Italian States in the Renaissance Five Major Powers Milan • Francesco Sforza takes control • Viscontis and Sforzas created a centralized state and collected large tax revenues Venice • Ruled by an oligarchy of merchant aristocrats • Maritime power which looked to expand to mainland to secure food sources Florence • Cosimo Medici (1434 -1464) (made money in banking) • Lorenzo the Magnificent (1469 -1492) • Republican form of Gov, but controlled by Medici family The Papal States • Weakened by the Great Schism • Looked to regain control over Urbino, Bologna, & Ferrara Kingdom of Naples • Controlled by monarchy and a population of poor peasants • Did not experience the Renaissance like the rest of Italy

What was the relation between art and politics in Renaissance Italy?

Italian Renaissance Humanism Classical Revival (Greco-Roman classics) Individualism and Secularism were two characteristics of the Renaissance • Renaissance was a movement of the elite, not the masses Petrarch (1304 – 1374) Characterized the Middle Ages as dark Promoted studying the classics Humanism in Fifteenth-Century Italy Study of Ancient Greek and Roman writers Leonardo Bruni (1370 – 1444) • New Cicero s Renaissance Ideal – duty of an intellectual to be active for one’s state Civic Humanism – fusion of political action and literary creation Lorenzo Valla (1407 – 1457) • Wrote Elegances of the Latin Language s Wanted to restore Latin as proper language over the vernacular Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463 – 1494), Oration on the Dignity of Man – Human Potential (people could be whatever they chose or willed)

Education, History, and the Impact of Printing Education in the Renaissance Liberal Studies: history, moral philosophy, eloquence (rhetoric), letters (grammar and logic), poetry, mathematics, astronomy, music, physical education (martial arts) Purpose was to create individuals who followed a path of virtue and wisdom & could influence others to do the same Education of women • Few women got an education • Ones who did got an education focusing on religion and morals Aim of education was to create a complete citizen Humanism and History Periodization of history (ancient world, dark ages, present time) Secularization – took religious events out of history Guicciardini (1483 – 1540), History of Italy, History of Florence • Examined evidence supporting historical events

The Impact of Printing Johannes Gutenberg • Movable type (1445 – 1450) • Gutenberg’s Bible (1455 or 1456) The spread of printing • By 1500, more than 1000 printers in Europe • Became one of Europe’s largest industries • Printing of books encouraged development of research • More laymen (regular people) became literate

How did the printing press change European society?

Art in the Early Renaissance Primary goal of artists was imitation of nature Masaccio (1401 – 1428) Took up where Giotto left off Frescoes are regarded as first masterpieces of the Early Renaissance Perspective and Organization (use of math in art) Movement and Anatomical Structure (study of the human form) Paolo Uccelo (1397 – 1475) The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian Sandro Botticelli (1445 – 1510) Primavera Donato di Donatello (1386 – 1466) David • First free standing nude bronze sculpture since antiquity Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 – 1446) The Cathedral of Florernce – finished the dome Church of San Lorenzo

The Artistic High Renaissance Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) Last Supper • Showed personality and relationship to Jesus through the apostles reaction “one of you will betray me” Raphael (1483 – 1520) Known for his madonnas School of Athens – imaginary gathering of ancient philosophers Michelangelo (1475 – 1564) The Sistine Chapel • Told the story of the fall of man David – marble sculpture

The Northern Artistic Renaissance Northern Renaissance artists Less mastery of perspective Emphasis on illuminated manuscripts & wooden panel painting Did not portray the human body like Italian counterparts Jan van Eyck (c. 1380 – 1441) Most influential Northern Renaissance artist Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride Albrecht Dürer (1471 – 1528) Adoration of the Magi

Reformation

Prelude to Reformation Christian or Northern Renaissance Humanism Christian Humanists • Northern Renaissance Goal-reform of Christianity • Focus on sources of Christianity s Holy Scriptures & writings of Church fathers s Found early religion simpler Desiderius Erasmus (1466 – 1536) • Handbook of the Christian Knight (1503)-showed his preoccupation with religion • “The Philosophy of Christ”-stressed inner piety over external religion such as sacraments, pilgrimages, fasts, veneration of saints, and relics • The Praise of Folly (1511) – criticism of the church • Wanted reform from within the church s Understand the philosophy of Jesus s Enlightened education in early Christianity • “Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched” • Erasmus would eventually disapprove of Luther and the Protestant reformers • Erasmus wanted to reform the church from within rather than split it up

What was Christian humanism and how did it help prepare the way for the Protestant Reformation? Did Erasmus’ works pave the way for Luther’s break with Rome and Catholicism?

Thomas More (1478 -1535) Well educated – worked for English government as Lord Chancellor Friends with English humanists including Erasmus Wrote Utopia (1516) Greek for Nowhere, set in an imaginary island near the new world Based on communal ownership rather than private property Citizens enjoyed abundant leisure time More saw corruption first hand serving King Henry VIII Opposed Henry VIII’s divorce and break with the Catholic church Thomas More was executed in 1535

Church and Religion on the Eve of the Reformation Corruption in the clergy Pluralism – high church officials took over more than one church office, which led to duties being ignored Widespread desire for meaningful religious expression The masses wanted to insure their salvation Church used relics and indulgences to generate money and reduce a person’s time in purgatory “Modern Devotion” popular mystical movement Thomas à Kempis, The Imitation of Christ • Downplayed religious dogma & stressed the teachings of Jesus

The Early Luther Early Life Education in law Joins Augustinian Hermits (becomes a monk) Struggled with assurances of salvation Catholic Doctrine stressed faith and good work for salvation Justification by faith & the Bible became pillars of the Protestant Reformation The Indulgence Controversy Jubilee indulgence (1517) • Raised money to finish St. Peter’s Basilica • “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs” Ninety-Five Theses • Luther’s indictment of church corruption • Pope Leo X did nothing • translated into German and thousands of copies were printed

Luther Cont’d The Quickening Rebellion 1519: Leipzig Debate • Johann Eck forced Luther to deny the authority of popes and councils 1520: Luther moves toward break with Rome • Wrote three pamphlets • Address to the Nobility of the German Nation s Called for German princes to overthrow the papacy in Germany • The Babylonian Captivity of the Church s Attacked the sacramental system s Called for clergy to be able to marry • On the Freedom of a Christian Man s Salvation through faith alone rather than good works

1521: Diet of Worms - Luther refuses to recant Holy Roman Emperor Charles the V passes Edict of Worms • Excommunicates Luther • His works are burned • Luther becomes an outlaw within the Holy Roman Empire

Church and State Doctrinal Issues Justification by faith • Luther downplayed good works as a passage to salvation Transubstantiation • Luther denied the practice of the bread and wine consumed turning to the blood and body of Jesus Authority of Scripture • The word of God in the Bible was sufficient authority in religious affairs “Priesthood of all believers” • All Christians who followed the word of God were their own priests State Churches & New Religious Services • Luther replaced the mass with Bible readings and songs

What was Luther’s fundamental problem with the Catholic Church?

Germany and the Reformation: Religion and Politics Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1519 – 1556) Faced four major problems French, papacy, Turks and Germany’s internal situation Problems allowed Luther’s movement to grow and organize Francis I of France (1515 – 1547) Chief concern during the reign of Charles V Habsburg – Valois Wars (1521 – 1544) (wars between France & Spain) Pope Clement VII (1523 – 1534) sides with Francis I • Charles V sacked Rome, took over Italy (1527) Allowed time for the development of Lutheranism in Germany Suleiman the Magnificent (1520 – 1566) (Turks) Killed King Louis of Hungary and moved into Vienna Turks were pushed back in 1529 Charles V decided to deal with Luther

Germany’s fragmented political power had made German states independent Diet of Augsburg (1530) Charles V demands that Lutherans return to the Catholic Church Schmalkaldic League – alliance of German princes (8 princes & 11 imperial cities join) New threats from the French and the Turks forced Charles to compromise with the Lutherans

Schmalkaldic War First Phase 1546 -1547 Luther died in 1546 Charles invades German states and defeats the Lutherans at the Battle of Muhlberg Second Phase German Princes allied with new French king Henry II Although he was Catholic, he hated Charles more than the Lutherans Charles V was forced to offer a truce Charles abdicated (stepped down) as Holy Roman Emperor Peace of Augsburg (1555) Division of Christianity acknowledged Lutheranism granted equal rights with Catholicism German rulers could chose the religion of their subjects

The Spread of the Protestant Reformation Lutheranism in Scandinavia Disintegration of Denmark, Norway, Sweden union Development of Lutheran national churches • By 1540, Scandinavia was a Lutheran stronghold The Zwinglian Reformation Swiss Confederation • Loose association of 13 self-governing states called cantons Ulrich Zwingli (1484 – 1531) • Strongly influenced by Christian Humanism • Unrest in Zurich s Zwingli’s preaching vs. Catholic ideals in town hall debate • Seeks alliance with German reformers s For protection against imperial and conservative opposition Marburg Colloquy – attempt to unite Swiss & German reformers • • Stalled over interpretation of Lord’s Supper (Communion) Zwingli believed it was symbolic Luther believed it was literal No alliance was formed Swiss Civil War (Swiss Protestants vs. Catholic Cantons) • Zurich’s army defeated – Zwingli found wounded on the battlefield • Enemies cut up his body, burned pieces, and spread the ashes

The Reformation in England Henry VIII (1509 – 1547) Catherine of Aragón (First Wife) Henry seeks to dissolve marriage Charles the V was Catherine’s nephew, delayed process Anne Boleyn (Second Wife) Elizabeth I Act of Supremacy (1534) King was the head of the Church of England Formal break with the church of Rome Seized church land sold it

How did the English Reformation differ from the reformation in other countries?

John Calvin and the Development of Calvinism John Calvin (1509 – 1564) Humanist education Influenced by Luther Institutes of Christian Religion (1536) Synthesis of Protestant thought Predestination Some people were destined to be saved (the elect) and others were destined to be damned (the reprobate) Calvinism: militant form of Protestantism Two Sacraments Baptism – sign of remission of sin The Lord’s Supper – believed in presence of Jesus in the sacrament Geneva Consistory – a special body for enforcing moral discipline

How was Calvinism similar and different to Lutheranism?

The Catholic Reformation Old and New Emergence of new female mysticism Regeneration of religious orders • Did good works and preached the Gospel (combating spread of Protestantism) Creation of new religious orders • New orders founded orphanages, hospitals, schools and other acts of charity The Society of Jesus (Jesuits) Ignatius of Loyola (1491 – 1556) • The Spiritual Exercises – training manual for spiritual development Jesuits recognized as a religious order (1540) • Absolute obedience to the papacy • Structured like the military Three major objectives of Jesuits • Education crucial to combating Protestantism • Propagation of Catholic faith among non-Catholics (missionary work) • Fight Protestantism – restored Catholicism to parts of Germany, Poland Eastern Europe

A Revived Papacy Pope Paul III (1534 – 1549) Reform Commission (1535 – 1537) • Blamed the church’s problems on corrupt policies of popes and cardinals Recognized Jesuits & summoned the Council of Trent Roman Inquisition (1542) • No compromises with Protestantism Pope Paul IV (1555 – 1559) (Cardinal Caraffa) 1 st true pope of the Counter Reformation Index of Forbidden Books – banned books • Any Protestant others

The Council of Trent Met intermittently from 1545 – 1563 (3 sessions) Divisions between moderates and conservatives (conservatives won) Reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings Scripture and Tradition • Reaffirmed as equal authorities • Only the church could interpret Scripture Faith and Good Works were declared necessary for salvation 7 Sacraments, transubstantiation and clerical celibacy were all upheld Purgatory & indulgences were affirmed • (no more hawking indulgences) Most important was the creation of theological seminaries for training priests

What were the contributions of the papacy, Council of Trent, and the Jesuits to the revival of Catholicism?

Politics and the Wars of Religion in the Sixteenth Century The French Wars of Religion (1562 – 1598) Huguenots • 10% of pop but 40 – 50% of French nobility The ultra-Catholics • Led by the Guise family • Favored strict opposition to the Huguenots Revolts against the monarchy • Nobility and townships became more loyal to religion than monarchy The Politiques put government before religion Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (August 24, 1572) • Killed 3 thousand Huguenots in three days in Paris • Huguenots rebuild – backfires against Valois dynasty Henry IV of Navarre (1589 – 1610) • Converts to Catholicism • Edict of Nantes (1598) – acknowledges Catholicism as official religion of France but guaranteed Huguenots certain rights to hold office and practice religion

The England of Elizabeth Queen Elizabeth I (1558 – 1603) Act of Supremacy (1559) restored Protestantism to England made Elizabeth the supreme ruler Elizabeth tried to make religion acceptable to Catholics Puritans – wanted to eliminate all traces of Catholicism from Anglican church Foreign Policy – tried to avoid alliances and wars Encouraged English seamen to raid foreign ships Secretly sent aid to French Huguenots & Dutch Calvinists to weaken France & Spain Avoided alliances that would bring England into war Conflict with Spain Philip II grew tired of England’s involvement in the Netherlands The Spanish Armada (1588) Set sail to invade England Armada was routed

Exploration

Means Centralization of political authority Monarchies had the resources & authority to finance these expenditures Maps Ptolemy’s Geography (printed editions 1477) Written in 2 nd Century A. D. Depicted a round earth, 3 continents, two oceans Circumference of Earth was dramatically undersized Columbus and other explorers thought they could easily circumnavigate the globe Ships and Sailing Previous sailors used the Pole Star for navigation But it was useless south of the equator Naval technology • Axial rudder, lateen sails, compass, astrolabe Knowledge of wind patterns

The Development of a Portuguese Maritime Empire Prince Henry the Navigator (1394 – 1460) Founded a school for navigators During his reign, Portuguese sailors explored the west coast of Africa The Portuguese in India Bartholomeu Dias (c. 1450 – 1500) • Rounded Cape of Good Hope Vasco da Gama (c. 1460 – 1524) • Reaches India by rounding Cape of Good Hope • Returned with spices such as ginger and cinnamon Alfonso d’Albuquerque (1462 – 1515) • Commercial – Military bases (Goa)

In Search of Spices Portuguese expansion • Set up trading posts in India & China, established spice trade • Used military and naval advantage to seize control of spice trade from Muslim traders Reasons for Portuguese success • Guns & Seamanship

Why were the Portuguese so well positioned for overseas exploration?

Voyages to the New World Christopher Columbus (1451 – 1506) Knowledgeable Europeans knew the Earth was round but it was smaller than it actually is Tried to reach Asia by sailing west Reached the Bahamas (Oct. 12, 1492) Additional voyages (1493, 1498, and 1502) Carried with him a copy of Marco Polo’s Travels Additional Discoveries John Cabot – explored New England coastline (Henry VII) Pedro Cabral – (Portuguese) discovered South American coastline Amerigo Vespucci – accompanied several voyages • wrote letters describing new world • Name “America” come from his name

Treaty of Tordesillas 1494 – divided up the newly discovered world between the Spanish and the Portuguese Dividing line gave all of the New World to Spain except Brazil. The Portuguese got Brazil and everything east

The Spanish Empire in the New World Early Civilizations in Mesoamerica The Maya (300 A. D. -800 A. D. ) The Aztecs (1200 A. D. -1500 s A. D. ) The Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire Hernan Cortés (1485 – 1547) • Marched to Tenochtitlan making alliances Moctezuma (Montezuma) • Initially thought Cortes was a God Aztec Empire overthrown • Small pox and allies

Administration of the Spanish Empire Encomienda – system of tribute and labor for Spaniards • Made the Indians basically slaves to the Spanish Dominican friars began to voice their concern over the harsh treatment of the Indians • Bartolome de Las Casas was the most vocal opponent of the encomienda system Viceroys – King’s chief military & civil officer The Church – mass conversions

Africa: The Slave Trade New Rivals European powers began establishing forts in Africa to dominate the trade in gold The Dutch Republic began to take over the spice trade from Portugal Origins of the Slave Trade Sugar cane and slavery • Indian population was decimated by disease African climate and soil weren’t suited to grow sugar cane Growth of the Slave Trade Up to 10, 000 African slaves taken to the Americas between the Sixteenth and Nineteenth Centuries The Middle Passage (trip across the Atlantic): high death rate during transit • 300 to 450 slaves per ship (loose pack or tight pack) • Trip took a little over 3 months • Approx. 10% of slaves died on voyage Prisoners of war (Slave trade increased wars between African tribes) Triangle Trade – Europe to Africa to Americas, then back to Europe • Europeans traded goods for slaves, sold the slaves, kept some profit, bought more goods and started the cycle over again

What social and economic forces drove the Slave Trade?

Mercantilism is a set of economic principles that came to dominate economic practices in the 17 th century Belief that the total volume of trade unchangeable Economic activity = war through peaceful means One nation could expand its trade at the expense of another nation Importance of bullion (gold & silver) and favorable balance of trade Export valuable goods to New World Import Bullion to European states State Intervention in the economy was desirable for the sake of the national good.

What economic changes occurred in Europe as a result of Mercantilism and Capitalism?

The Columbian Exchange Reciprocal importation and exportation (exchange) of plants and animals between the New World and Europe exported Wheat, grapevines, olive trees, horses, cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep to the New World Europe imported tomatoes, peanuts, peppers, beans, squash, sweet potatoes, and manioc from the New World

European States

The Witchcraft Craze Witchcraft existed for centuries as a traditional village culture Medieval church connected witchcraft to the devil, making it an act of heresy Establishment of the Inquisition in the 13 th century, increased prosecutions and executions Accusations against witches • Allegiance to the devil • Attended sabbats • Use of evil incantations or potions

Reasons for witchcraft prosecutions • Religious uncertainty (areas of strife between Protestants & Catholics) • Social conditions – old single women cut off from charity by the new emphasis on capitalism over communal interests became the scapegoats when problems arose Women as primary victims • Most theologians, lawyers, & philosophers believed women were inferior to men & more susceptible to witchcraft Begins to subside by mid-seventeenth century • Fewer judges were willing to prosecute accused witches • A more educated populous questioned the old view of a world haunted by spirits

What does the witchcraft craze tell us about European society and the place of women in that society in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries?

The Thirty Years War (1618 – 1648) Background Religious conflict (militant Catholicism & militant Calvinism) Secular, dynastic-nationalist considerations were more important Tensions in the Holy Roman Empire • Most of the fighting took place in Germany, but it was a Europe wide struggle • Conflict for European leadership • Between: Bourbon dynasty of France vs. Habsburg dynasty of Spain & Holy Roman Empire Posturing for war (think alliance system) • Frederick IV of Palatinate (Calvinist) formed the Protestant Union • Duke Maximilian of Bavaria (Catholic) formed the Catholic League of German States • Germany divided into two armed alliances along religious lines • Holy Roman Emperors looked to relatives in Spain to help consolidate their authority in the German States • German princes looked to Spain’s enemy France for support

The Bohemian Phase (1618 -1625) Bohemian estates accepted Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand as their king Ferdinand set about re-catholicizing Bohemia Protestants rebelled in 1618, deposing Ferdinand & electing Protestant ruler Frederick V of Palatinate (head of Protestant Union) Ferdinand is elected Holy Roman Emperor & returned with the help of Maximilian of Bavaria & the Catholic League Imperial forces & Spanish retook Bohemia & captured Palatinate by 1622

The Danish Phase (1625 – 1629) • King Christian IV of Denmark intervened on the Protestant side • Formed alliances with United Provinces & England • Christian IV’s forces were defeated, ending Danish supremacy in the Baltic Sea • Emperor Ferdinand II issued the Edict of Restitution (1629) • Prohibited Calvinist worship • Restored property to the Catholic church

The Swedish Phase (1630 – 1635) Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden enters the war Gustavus’s army defeated imperial forces & moved into central Germany Imperial forces defeat the Swedes at the battle of Nordlingen, ensuring that southern Germany would remain Catholic The emperor tried to use this victory to make peace by annulling the Edict of Restitution of 1629 The peace failed because the Swedes wished to continue fighting & the French Catholics under Cardinal Richelieu were about to enter the war on the Protestant side

The Franco-Swedish Phase (1635 – 1648) Battle of Rocroi (1643) French defeat Spanish troops, ending Spain’s military greatness French defeat Bavarian & Imperialist armies in Southern Germany War in Germany ends in 1648 but continues between the French & Spanish until 1659

Outcomes of the 30 year war Peace of Westphalia (1648) • • All German states were free to determine their own religion France & Sweden gained territory Holy Roman emperor reduced to a figurehead Made clear that religion & politics were now separate Social and economic effects • Decline in German Population • Some areas of Germany were devastated, others were untouched & experienced economic growth • Most destructive European war to date

Outcomes continued Peace of Pyrenees (1659) Ends the conflict between France & Spain becomes a 2 nd class power France emerges as the dominant European nation Some historians feel the 30 years (1618 -1648) should actually be called the 50 years war (1609 -1659) stretching from the formation of the Protestant Union & Catholic League to the Peace of Pyrenees

A Military Revolution? War and Politics in Seventeenth-Century Europe made it essential that a ruler had a powerful military New Tactics Battalions of infantry armed with pikes became superior to cavalry Gustavus Adolphus employed a standing army (conscripts) instead of mercenaries Mixed musketeers with pikemen effectively (volley of shots followed by a rush) Adolphus used a similar strategy with cavalry New Technologies Firearms, cannons, standing armies, mobile tactics The Cost of a Modern Military Heavier taxes making war an economic burden State bureaucracy grew and so did the power of state government

What was the “military revolution” and what effect did it have on warfare in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries?

Absolute Monarchy in France Absolutism – sovereign power or ultimate authority in the state rested in the hands of a king who claimed to rule by divine right Foundations of French Absolutism Political Theorist Jean Bodin defined sovereign power as authority to: • Make laws, tax, administer justice, control the state & determine foreign policy Bishop Jacques Bossuet wrote: Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture – God established kings so their rule was divine

Cardinal Richelieu (1624 – 1642) • Louis XIII’s chief advisor • Initiated policies that strengthened the monarchy • Eliminated political & military rights of Huguenots (French Calvinists) but preserved their religious ones • Transformed the Huguenots into more reliable subjects • Eliminated noble threats to the crown • Sent out royal officials (intendants) to reform & strengthen the central government • Richelieu ran the crown into debt s Mismanagement of funds & 30 Years’ War expenditures

The Reign of Louis XIV (1643 – 1715) Louis XIV took control of France at the age of 23 Administration of the Government Domination and bribery • Dominated the actions of ministers and secretaries • Stacked the royal council with loyal followers from new aristocratic families • Issued bribes to control provinces and the people who ran them Religious Policy “One King, one law, one faith” Edict of Fontainebleau (1685) • Revoked the Edict of Nantes (1598) • Destruction of Huguenot churches & closing of Protestant schools • Over 200 k Huguenots left France, weakening the economy & strengthening Protestant opposition to Louis in other countries

Palace at Versailles Daily Life at Versailles Purposes of Versailles • Intended to overawe subjects & impress foreign dignitaries • Housed royal officials & princes Court life and etiquette • Set the standard for European monarchies • Princes & nobles were arranged according to seniority s Real purpose was to exclude them from power by including them in the life of the king at Versailles

The Wars of Louis XIV Professional army: 100, 000 men in peacetime; 400, 000 in wartime Louis XIV waged war to insure French dominance in Europe and preserve the Bourbon dynasty Four wars between 1667 – 1713 • Invasion of Spanish Netherlands (1667 -1668) s Triple Alliance (English, Dutch & Swedes) forced Louis to sue for peace (received a few towns in the Spanish Netherlands) • Dutch War (1672 -1678) s Louis invaded the United Provinces leading Brandenburg, Spain, & the Holy Roman Empire to form a coalition to stop him s Received Franche-Comte from Spain • Annexation of Alsace and Lorraine, occupation of Strasbourg (1679) led to new opposition.

Louis’s Wars • War of the League of Augsburg (1689 – 1697) s Spain, The Holy Roman Empire, the United Provinces, Sweden, & England formed the League of Augsburg s Caused economic depression and famine in France s Treaty of Ryswick ended the war causing Louis to give up most of the territory he had previously gained

Louis’s Wars • War of the Spanish Succession (1702 – 1713) s Louis’s grandson was set to inherit the Spanish throne, (Phillip V) scaring neighboring countries about a united Spain & France s Coalition of England, United Provinces, Habsburg Austria, & the German states opposed France & Spain s Peace of Utrecht (1713) s Confirmed Phillip V as ruler of Spain s Affirmed thrones would remain separate s Coalition gained French & Spanish territory s England emerges as a strong naval force, gaining territory in America from France s Louis XIV died 2 years later, leaving France broke and surrounded by enemies.

Define absolutism and determine to what extent France’s government in the seventeenth century can be labeled an absolute monarchy.

Absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe The German States The Rise of Brandenburg-Prussia • The Hohenzollern Dynasty • Frederick William the Great Elector (1640 – 1688) s Army (standing army of 40 K men) s General War Commissariat to levy taxes s Evolved into an agency for civil government s Reinforced serfdom through concessions to the nobles s Used Mercantilist Policies s High tariffs, subsidies, & monopolies • Frederick III (1688 – 1713) s Aided Holy Roman Empire in the War of Spanish Succession s In return, he was granted the title King of Prussia (1701)

The Reign of Peter the Great (1689 – 1725) Visits the West (1697 – 1698) Seeks to modernize Russia Mostly technical Reorganizes armed forces Modernized military – standing army of 210, 000 Created a navy Reorganizes central government Divides Russia into provinces Seeks control of the Russian Church Introduces Western Customs No spitting on floor or scratching oneself at dinner Cutting off beards and coats

The Reign of Peter the Great Positive Impact of Reforms on Women Upper class women were encouraged to mingle with men Women could choose who they wanted to marry “Open a window to the West” A port easily accessible to Europe Attacks Sweden Battle of Narva (1700) • 8, 000 Swedes defeat 40, 000 Russians Great Northern War (1701 – 1721) Battle of Poltava (1709) • Russian army defeats Swedish army Peace of Nystadt (1721) • Russia gains control of Estonia, Livonia and Karelia St. Petersburg “Window to the West” (port in the Baltic Sea) New Russian capital

England & Constitutional Monarchy James I (1603 – 1625) and the House of Stuart Took over after Elizabeth’s death Claimed he ruled by Divine Right of Kings Parliament and the power of the purse Religious policies • The Puritans controlled most of the lower House of Commons Charles I (1625 – 1649) Petition of Right • Prevented any taxation without Parliament’s consent “Personal Rule” (1629 – 1640): Parliament does not meet • Charles I tries to collect taxes without Parliament • Forced to call Parliament to raise tax money to fight Scottish rebellion Religious policy angers Puritans • Charles I married a Catholic (Louis XIII’s sister Henrietta) • Charles I calls Parliament and the members make changes to limit royal authority • Charles I arrests radical members of Parliament and Parliament rebels starting the English Civil War

Civil War (1642 – 1648) Oliver Cromwell New Model Army – effective against Royalists Extreme Puritans who believed they were fighting for God 1 st phase Charles I is captured after 1 st Phase of Civil War (1646) Charles I escaped and got the Scotts to help invade England Charles I is captured, tried, & executed (Jan. 30, 1649) Parliament abolishes the monarchy Cromwell dissolves Parliament (April 1653) Cromwell divides country into 11 regions ruled by military Cromwell dies (1658) Army reestablishes the monarchy, Charles II

Restoration & a Glorious Revolution Charles II (1660 – 1685) Reestablished Anglican church Parliament suspected he was Catholic because his brother James was Charles II passed Declaration of Indulgence (1672) Suspended laws passed by Parliament against Catholics and Puritans Parliament passed Test Act (1673) – Only Anglicans could hold military and civil offices James II (1685 – 1688) Devout Catholic Issued new Declaration of Indulgence (1687) Protestant daughters: Mary and Anne Catholic son born in 1688 Parliament invites Mary and her husband, William of Orange, to invade England James II, wife and son flee to France

Mary and William of Orange offered throne (1689) Bill of Rights Affirmed Parliament’s right to make laws & tax laid the foundation for a constitutional monarchy The Toleration Act of 1689 Granted Puritans right to free public worship Ironically the Toleration Act still didn’t tolerate Catholics

Responses to the Revolution Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679) Leviathan (1651) People form a commonwealth for protection People have no right to rebel Believed in strong government to maintain social order John Locke (1632 – 1704) Two Treatises of Government Inalienable Rights: Life, Liberty and Property People form a government to protect their rights If government does not fulfill their social contract with the people, the people have the right to revolt

Scientific Revolution

Toward a New Heaven: A Revolution in Astronomy Greatest Achievements in the Scientific Revolution of the 16 th & 17 th centuries came in the fields dominated by the ideas of the Greeks Astronomy, mechanics, & medicine Aristotle, Claudius Ptolemy and Christian Theology Ptolemaic view – Geocentric model

Geocentric Universe Motionless Earth was the center of the universe Ten Spheres surrounded the Earth – Mercury, Venus, the sun, Mars Jupiter, Saturn and the fixed stars According to Aristotle, spheres moved in a circle around Earth Christianized Ptolemaic Universe • Beyond the spheres was Empyrean Heaven – location of God and all of the saved souls • Christian Ptolemaic universe had a fixed outer boundary

What were the roots of the Scientific Revolution?

Copernicus (1473 -1543) Studied mathematics & astronomy in his native Poland & later Italy Tried to create a simpler explanation but develops a theory nearly as complicated as Ptolemy On The Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres • Didn’t publish it until right before his death for fear of ridicule Heliocentric Universe – sun centered universe • Based on observations of earlier astronomers and his own observations • Everything seemed to rotate around Earth because Earth was rotating • Creates doubt about the Ptolemaic system & Aristotle’s astronomy • Copernicus and his theory were denounced by Protestant leaders (Luther) • Catholics did not denounce them until Galileo

Tycho Brahe (1546 -1601) Danish nobleman who built an observatory at Uraniborg castle Recorded astronomical data on positions & movements of planets & stars Rejected Aristelian-Ptolemaic system but was unable to accept Copernicus’ model Brahe thought the planets orbited the sun and the sun orbited the earth Took on an assistant in Prague, named Johannes Kepler

A Revolution in Astronomy, Continued Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630) Originally a student of theology Interest in Hermetic thought and Mathematical magic • Believed mathematical relationships were the basis for all nature not just on earth but the universe • “Music of the Spheres” s Harmony or mathematical concept of movement of heavenly spheres • Convinced that celestial bodies effected things on earth • The moon’s orbit effected the tides on earth

Laws of Planetary Motion • Orbits of planets were not circular, but elliptical • Speed of a planet differs depending on proximity to the sun • Planets with larger orbits revolve at a slower average velocity Discredits Aristotelian-Ptolemaic System • Kepler’s laws of planetary motion gained acceptance in the scientific community Confirmed Copernicus’ heliocentric theory

Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642) Galileo Mathematics professor 1 st European to observe the heavens with a Telescope • Discovered 4 moons of Jupiter, mountains & craters on moon, sunspots Observed that celestial bodies were made up of the same natural properties as Earth The Starry Messenger – published his findings • Did more to further the new picture of the universe than Copernicus and Kepler’s mathematical theories • Supported the heliocentric system

Galileo and the Church Condemned by the Church • Roman Inquisition condemned Copernicanism & ordered Galileo to reject the Copernican thesis • The church would allow Galileo to discuss Copernicanism as long as he maintained it was a mathematical supposition not a fact • The Church attacked Copernican System s The heavens were no longer a spiritual world but a world of matter s Humans were no longer the center of the universe s God was no longer in a specific place s The Copernican System raised so many uncertainties that it was easier to condemn it than sort it out.

Galileo and the Church Galileo does not accept the church’s condemnation of his findings In 1632, he publishes Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems: Ptolemaic and Copernican Written in Italian rather than Latin Book supports Copernican system & Galileo was called before the Inquisition again in 1633 • Found guilty & forced to recant his errors and placed on house arrest for the remaining 8 years of his life while he studied mechanics • Discovered the principle of inertia

Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge University Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1684 – 1686): The Principia Three Laws of Motions Universal Law of Gravity – mathematical proof that could explain all motion in the universe World seen in mechanistic terms (world-machine) – the universe was one giant machine that operated according to natural laws God – Newton believed God was everywhere and served as the force that moved the bodies Newton’s ideas were accepted in Great Britain immediately, but not for another century in continental Europe

What was the Newtonian world-machine theory?

Toward a New Earth: Descartes, Rationalism, and a New View of Humankind Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650) Discourse on Method (1637) “I think, therefore I am. ” • Justified his own existence Separation of mind and matter • “mind cannot be doubted, but the body and material world can, the two must be radically different” Cartesian Dualism – absolute duality between body and mind • Using human reason (mathematics) humans can understand the material world and its mechanisms Father of modern rationalism (logic) • Matter was dead or inert Books will be banned by Catholics and Protestants

The Spread of Scientific Knowledge The Scientific Method Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626) • • • Rejects Copernicus and Kepler; Misunderstands Galileo The Great Instauration (The Great Restoration) Correct Scientific Method built on inductive principles Proceed from the particular to the general Experimentation & Observation to support hypothesis Descartes • Deduction and mathematical logic (empiricism) Newton • Unites Bacon’s empiricism and Descartes rationalism • Became the key figure in the Scientific Revolution • Inspired search for natural laws in other fields

Compare the methods used by Bacon and Descartes.

Science and Society People recognized Science’s rational superiority Science offered new ways to make profit and maintain social order. Science became part of elite culture and carried status in society

Science and Religion Conflict between Science and Religion rejects scientific discoveries that contradict the Christian view of the world Scientific beliefs triumph and religious beliefs suffer Leads to a growing secularization in European intellectual life

Enlightenment

The Enlightenment thinkers used the scientific method to analyze & understand all aspects of human life • German philosopher Immanuel Kant came up with a motto for the Englightenment s “Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence!” Popularization of Science • Bernard de Fontenelle (1657 – 1757), Plurality of Worlds s He was a skeptic who portrayed the church as an enemy of scientific progress s Provided a link between scientists of the 17 th century & philosophes of the 18 th century

The Legacy of Locke & Newton Using Newtown’s Natural Reason to discover natural laws that govern politics, economics justice, religion, and the arts Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding Knowledge derived from the environment Denied Descartes’ belief in innate ideas • Instead believed people were born with a tabula rasa (a blank mind) Both Thinkers provided inspiration for the Enlightenment to use rational reasoning to discover natural laws of society

What was the significance of John Locke and Isaac Newton on the Enlightenment?

Montesquieu & Political Thought Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu (1689 -1755) Persian Letters, 1721 Attacks traditional religion, advocacy of religious toleration, denunciation of slavery, French monarchy The Spirit of the Laws, 1748; comparative study of government • Montesquieu attempted to apply the scientific method to the social & political arena to develop natural laws governing social relationships • Advocated a separation of powers between branches of the government (based on English model)

Voltaire and the Enlightenment Francois-Marie Arouet, Voltaire (1694 -1778) Best known for his criticism of religious intolerance Published a translation of Newton’s Principia with the Marquise du Chatelet (his mistress) Philosophic Letters on the English, 1733 Spoke of England’s freedoms (press, political, & religious) Treatise on Toleration, 1763 Argued for religious toleration Candide – (Optimism) satire on the philosophy of Leibniz Deism – Religious outlook based on the Newtonian world machine model Viewed God as the master mechanic who built the universe but allows it to operate under its own natural laws

Diderot and the Encyclopedia Denis Diderot (1713 -1784) Encyclopedia, 28 volumes Many of the contributors were philosophes Attacked religious superstition and advocated toleration Lowered price helped to spread the ideas of the Enlightenment

What specific contributions did Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot make to the age of the Enlightenment?

Adam Smith & Laissez-Faire Economics Adam Smith (1723 -1790) The Wealth of Nations, 1776 • Best statement on Laissez-Faire Attack on mercantilism • Condemned tariffs • It is better to purchase a cheap product than produce an expensive one Advocate of free trade A nations true wealth came from its labor Government has only three basic functions • • Protect society from invasion (army) Defend individuals from injustice and oppression (police) Keep up public works (roads, canals etc. ) Smith & Physiocrats laid the foundation for economic liberalism

Rousseau and the Social Contract Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 -1778) Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind; preservation of private property had enslaved the mass of society • Government was a necessary evil Social Contract, 1762; Tried to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority Concept of General Will – social contract was an agreement by an entire society to let someone govern them Emile, 1762; important work on education raising kids • Education should foster children’s natural instincts rather than restrict them Major influence on the development of Romanticism • Rousseau sought a balance between the heart & the mind (sentiment & reason)

What were the major ideas of Jean. Jacques Rousseau?

The High Culture of the Eighteenth Century High Culture vs Popular Culture High Culture – literary & artistic world of educated & wealthy Popular Culture – written & unwritten (oral) lore of the masses Expansion of Publishing and Reading Public Development of magazines & newspapers for the general public • Enormous impact on European high culture Newspapers were distributed free at coffeehouses England was at the forefront of publishing and coffeehouse culture aimed at the newly emerging literate middle class Education and Universities Secondary schools Attended mostly by the elite of society Did not promote social mobility • Curriculum focused mainly on the classics • Math, science, foreign language & accounting start to be included in the late 18 th century

What were the differences between “high culture” and “popular culture? ”

18 th Century European States

The European States 18 th Century Europe Period between 1715 -1789 End of the Reign of Louis XIV & start of French Revolution Rise of centralized governments, efficient taxation & standing armies Enlightened Absolutism? Utilitarianism – ethical theory that actions should look to attain the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people Natural Rights • Equality before the law, freedom of religious worship, freedom of speech and press and the to right to assemble, hold property & seek happiness • Influenced writers of the Declaration of Independence

Enlightened Absolutism s s s s How they were to rule? Religious Toleration Freedom of speech and press Right to hold private Property Must obey the laws and enforce them fairly Foster the arts, science & education Reforms should come from the rulers rather than the masses Rulers such as Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria are examples of rulers influenced by Enlightenment Ideas Idea of Divine Right was gradually replaced by enlightened absolutism

What does the phrase “enlightened politics” mean?

The Atlantic Seaboard States France: Problems of the French monarchs • 18 th Century France lost an empire & acquired debt • Louis XIV left France with a huge debt, unhappy people and an empire to large to run • Louis XV (1715 – 1774) s 5 years old when he became king s Duke of Orleans ruled for him until Cardinal Fleury took over s Fleury expanded trade, industry and balanced the budget briefly until he died in 1743 s Louis XV decided he was ready to rule s Louis XV was weak and easily influenced s He lost territory in the Seven Years’ War, taxed to much and spent to much

• Louis XVI (1774 – 1792) s 20 year old grandson of Louis XV and husband of Marie Antoinette s France’s financial burden worsened leading towards revolution s Concerned primarily with life in the court at Versailles s People began to resent the royal attitude of Louis XVI and his Austrian wife

Great Britain: King & Parliament United Kingdom of Great Britain, 1707 (England & Scotland unite) 18 th Century British Politics Shared power between king and Parliament • Parliament slowly gaining the upper hand The King’s Ministers Set policy and guided Parliament Makeup - Peers who sat for life in the House of Lords and landed gentry who sat in the House of Commons and served as justices of the peace in the counties Power to make laws, levy taxes, pass the budget Parliamentary elections • Deputies to the House of Commons were chosen from boroughs & counties, not by popular vote • “Pocket Boroughs” controlled by a single person

Hanoverians – George I (r. 1714 – 1727) and George II (r. 1727 – 1760) German kings took over after the Stuart line failed to produce a male heir Robert Walpole (prime minister, 1721 – 1742) • More or less ran the country for the Hanoverian Kings • Pursued a peaceful foreign policy to avoid new land taxes William Pitt, the Elder (prime minister, 1757 – 1761) • Advocated expansion of trade and world empire • Acquired Canada & India in the Seven Years’ War • Replaced by King George III Increased power of king’s ministers to issue patronage

Absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe Prussia: The Army and The Bureaucracy Frederick William I, 1713 -1740 General Directory (central government) Highly efficient bureaucracy Army • Junkers (nobles) s Monopoly over officer corps s Nobles had a sense of service to the king Junkers dominated social and military affairs in Prussia during the 18 th Century

Frederick II, the Great, 1740 -1786 Well educated • Enlightenment thought • One of the most cultured European monarchs Reforms: Law code, Civil liberties Socially and politically conservative • Did not interfere with serfdom, since he was to dependent on the nobles • Made Prussian society more aristocratic Use of the army • Expansion of Prussian territory s Gained the Austrian province of Silesia

The Austrian Empire of the Hapsburgs Empress Maria Theresa, 1740 -1780 Austria culturally divided Practical but conservative reforms to strengthen the Hapsburg state Austrian empire became more centralized Joseph II, 1780 -1790 Reforms (influenced by the Enlightenment) • • Abolishes serfdom New penal code (no more death penalty) Religious toleration Radical reforms overwhelming for Austria s 6, 000 decrees & 11, 000 laws s Alienated the nobles & the church

Russia Under Catherine the Great, 1762 -1796 Reform (influenced by philosophes) Instruction, 1767 • Questioned serfdom, torture, capital punishment & advocated equal justice • Accomplished little due to heavy opposition and were soon forgotten. Strengthens landholders at expense of serfs Divided Russia into 50 provinces, which were subdivided into districts controlled by nobles Gentry had the right to trial by peers, & exemption from personal taxation & corporal punishment

Rebellion of Emelyan Pugachev, 1773 -1775 Conditions for peasants worsened leading to a revolt Encouraged peasants to seize their landlords’ estates Russian Cossack who launched a revolt Encouraged peasants to rise up and overthrow their landlords (1500 estate owners were killed) Pugachev was betrayed, captured, tortured & killed Peasants were repressed even more Territorial Expansion Westward into Poland Southern expansion into the Ottoman Empire Expanded Russian territory at the expense of the Turks

Enlightened Absolutism Revisited Only Joseph II sought radical changes based on Enlightenment ideas Catherine the Great & Frederick II liked the ideas of the Enlightenment, but their reforms were limited Political and Social Limits on Reforms were usually limited to changes in administrative & judicial systems Enlightened absolutism could not overcome the political and social realities of the time.

Wars and Diplomacy European Rivalries The War of the Austrian Succession (1740 – 1748) A world war? • Balance of Power • Pragmatic Sanction s Charles VI had European powers agree to recognize his daughter Maria Theresa as his legal heir s Frederick II of Prussia took advantage of the Maria Theresa by invading & taking Silesia s Thought the fundamental rule of government was to expand territory s Maria Theresa made an alliance with Great Britain who feared French domination of Europe s Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle promised the return of all territories except Silesia s Prussia’s refusal to return Silesia guaranteed another war with Austria

Seven Years’ War (1756 – 1763) Diplomatic revolution • Russia, France & Austria vs. Great Britain & Prussia • Maria Theresa refuses to recognize the loss of Silesia • Habsburgs (Austria) and Bourbons (France) making an alliance European war • Frederick II (The Great) of Prussia held off armies of France, Russia, & Austria, but they gradually wore his troops down • Peter III comes to power in Russia & withdraws his troops from Prussia • War ends in a stalemate • Peace of Hubertusberg in 1763 – occupied territories returned & Prussia officially gets Silesia

Economic Expansion & Social Conditions (cont) An Agricultural Revolution Started in Great Britain Increased food production More farmland • Stopped leaving fields fallow • Planted crops to feed livestock & replenish nitrogen in the soil Increased yield per acre • Use of hoe to bring air & moisture to the soil more livestock • Extra crops kept them feed through the winter • Provided manure to fertilize crops better climate • Little ice age was over New methods and new crops • Corn and potatoes brought from New World (Columbian Exchange) Enclosure • Fencing off farmland

New Methods of Finance National debt • Issued government bonds which yielded interest • National debt was different than a monarchy’s debt National Banks • Circulation of paper bank notes that replaced gold and silver as currency European Industry Cottage industry Spinners and weavers worked in their own cottages • Entrepreneurs bought raw materials and sent them out to cottage industries to be sewed into garments • Then the finished good was sold for a profit New methods and new machines • Flying shuttle • Water frame

French Revolution

The American Revolution French support Aided colonists with money and troops French army and navy helped the colonists defeat British General Cornwallis at Yorktown Forming a New Nation Articles of Confederation, 1781 -1789 Constitution, 1789 • Bill of Rights, 1791 • Checks and Balances Impact of the American Revolution on Europe Concept of freedom Concept of rights French army and navy officers brought American political and moral ideas back to Europe

What impact did the American Revolution have on Europe?

Background to the French Rev Social Structure of the Old Regime • First and Second Estates dominated society s First Estate = clergy (130, 000) s Owned 10% of land s Exempt from France’s chief tax s Second Estate = nobility (350, 000) s Owned 25 -30% of the land s Exempt from taille or tax French economy was growing in the 18 th century, but money was not distributed to equal segments of society.

The Third Estate • Commoners s Peasants = 75 -80% of the population s Peasants own 35 -40% of the land s Serfdom was over, but peasants still paid to use village facilities such as flour mill, community oven, s Paid taxes • Skilled artisans, shopkeepers, and wage earners • Bourgeoisie (middle class) (8% or 2. 3 million) s Own 20 -25% of the land s Merchants, industrialists, bankers, lawyers, doctors, writers s Similarities between wealthier bourgeoisie and nobility

Other Problems Facing the French Monarchy Bad Harvests (1787 and 1788) Food shortages & rising price of food (bread) Poverty One-third of the population was poor Ideas of the Philosophes Criticism of privileges of the clergy and nobility Enlightenment writers (especially Rouseau) were influential Failure to Reform Obstruction of reform by the French Parlements Financial Crisis (immediate cause of French Revolution) Mounting debt Calonne’s “assembly of notables” (1787) (nobles, prelates, magistrates) • Refused to cooperate with the king Summoning of the Estates General (1789) • Virtually consenting that public approval was necessary to raise taxes

From Estates-General to a National Assembly 300 delegates each to the First and Second Estate Approx. 90 of the nobles were liberal minded (Enlightenment) 600 delegates to the Third Estate Strong legal and urban presence Cahiers de doléances (statements of local grievances) Advocated a regular constitutional government that would abolish fiscal privileges of the church and nobility

Estates General meets May 5, 1789 Question of voting by order or head • Third Estate wanted to vote by head (double the representatives) • Third Estate wanted to make a single chamber legislature Abbé Sieyès “What is the Third Estate? Everything. What has it been thus far in the political order? Nothing. What does it demand? To become something. ” • Sieyes desired the Third Estate to have a voice in the Estates General

Third Estate June 17, 1789 – Declares itself a National Assembly and decides to draw up a constitution Doors were locked to the meeting place so they met at an indoor Tennis Court Oath, June 20 • Would continue to meet until they had a French Constitution Intervention of the Common People Attack on the Bastille, July 14 (arsenal & prison) Peasant rebellions, July 19 -August 3 Collapse of Royal Authority – saved the National Assembly Great Fear - fear of invasion by foreign troops aided by an aristocratic plot • Led to formation of more citizen militias French Revolutionary slogan “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity!”

How was France changed by the revolutionary events of 1789 -1792?

Foreign Crisis Informal coalition of Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain, & the Dutch Republic were against France Committee of Public Safety • Given power to curb anarchy & counterrevolution at home • Led by Danton and Robespierre Military losses Mounted A Nation in Arms Universal mobilization of the nation Rise of Nationalism Raised the largest army in European history The main accomplishment of the National Convention was preserving the Revolution from being destroyed by foreign enemies

The Reign of Terror & Its Aftermath Committee of Public Safety and Reign of Terror July 1793 -July 1794 Vendée – areas of rebellion had the highest death rate Terror demonstrated no class prejudice • Majority of the victims were from the peasant and laboring classes • Went after Royalists, Girondins, Vendee “Republic of Virtue” Price controls • Used goods requisitioned from the country for the cities Women • Although women contributed to the revolution, they were still limited politically

Dechristianization and a New Calendar New calendar • • Word saint was removed from streets Renamed months & Days (10 Day week) Removed Christian holidays Dechristianization failed because France was still a Catholic country s Created more enemies than friends Equality and Slavery Revolt in Saint Dominigue (Haiti) • Slave revolt was put down but started up again forming the first independent state in Latin America – Haiti • Inspired by the ideals of the Revolution Decline of the Committee of Public Safety Execution of Maximilien Robespierre, July 28, 1794 • Opposition grew out of fear that they were not safe while Robespierre was free to act • His death brought an end to the radical stage of the French Revolution

What role did the Reign of Terror play in the Revolution?

Reaction and the Directory Thermidorian Reaction and the Directory Curtails much of the Terror’s policies Shut down the Jacobin club and limits the power of the Committee of Public Safety Conservative turn of the Revolution Churches reopened Laissez-faire policies adopted Constitution of 1795 Council of Elders (upper house) elects 5 members to act as executive authority or Directory Army was used to disperse an insurrection • Showed that the Directory needed to rely on the military for survival

Rise of Napoleon Born as both a child of Enlightenment thought and of the French Revolution Initially disliked by fellow officers and soldiers because he was short and had an Italian accent Well read in Enlightenment thought and military history Married Josephine, the wife of a guillotined general Rose quickly in the military ranks by defeating the armies of France’s enemies

The Republic and the Empire Republic of France proclaimed, 1799 First Consul – controlled the executive branch First Consul for life, 1802 Crowned Emperor Napoleon I, 1804 Domestic Policies of Emperor Napoleon and the Catholic Church • • Concordat of 1801 ended tension with the church Stabilized Napoleon’s regime Church land was not returned Catholicism was not reinstated as the state religion

A New Code of Laws • Code Napoleon (Civil Code) s s s s Equality of all citizens before the law Right of individuals to choose their professions Religious toleration Abolition of serfdom and feudalism Property rights protected Outlawed trade unions Restored fathers control over their families s Divorce was more difficult to obtain s Husbands controlled property rights • Civil Code reaffirmed the ideals of the Revolution while creating a uniform legal system

Napoleon’s Empire and the European Response Peace of Amiens, 1802 (temporary peace) Renewal of war, 1803 Military victories, 1805 -1807 Napoleon’s Grand Empire Composed of 3 different parts and united under Napoleon (French Empire, dependent states, allied states) Failure of the Grand Empire • Problems: Great Britain and Nationalism s Survival of Britain s Seapower s Continental System, 1806 -1807 – block British good from Europe s Nationalism – spread nationalism to conquered territory, resulting in uprisings

The Fall of Napoleon Invasion of Russia, 1812 Invaded over their refusal to follow the Continental System 600, 000 soldiers attacked, 40, 000 made it out alive Defeat of Napoleon, April 1814 Exiled to island of Elba Island off the coast of Italy Escape from Elba, 1815 Raised an army Battle of Waterloo, June 18, 1815 Exiled to St. Helena Small island in the South Atlantic (between South America and Africa) Napoleon died 6 years later