AP Chemistry th Zumdahl Notes 9 ed A

AP Chemistry th Zumdahl Notes, 9 ed. A Brief Collection of notes, Chapter 2 Feel free to open these files and annotate as you feel the need…this is for your success.

Atoms, Molecules, Ions • Early History of Chemistry (read 43 -44); • Fundamental Chemical Laws • Antoine Lavoisier: considered the father of modern chemistry, wrote the first “modern” chemistry textbook; regarded measurement as the essential part of chemistry, arrived at law of conservation of mass…yeah! • Proust: law of definite proportion: a given cpd always has the same proportion of elements by mass; led way for Dalton to come back with the concept of atoms/tiny individual particles as well as law of multiple proportions (simple whole number ratios in cpds)

Atoms, Molecules Ions • Dalton’s atomic theory • Elements made of atoms • Atoms of a given element are identical; atoms of different elements are different in some fundamental way • When atoms of different elements combine, a new cpd is formed, with the same makeup of atoms/elements • Chemical reactions reorganize the atoms of the elements present, they do not create new elements/atoms • Dalton tried making table of atomic masses; had some errors but was first idea of using table for this information • Avogadro’s hypothesis: equal volumes of gases, at constant T & P, have the same # particles (1811)…resisted for half century, eventually confirmed

Atoms, Molecules, Ions • Early experiments/progress • • JJ Thomson: cathode ray tubes, electrons! Millikan: mass of electron, via oil drop experiment Becquerel: radioactivity Ernest Rutherford: gold foil expt: nucleus (+), mostly empty space • Think pea in football field…yeah, mostly empty space allright! • Modern view of atomic structure • Extremely small size, knowledge of isotopes • Molecules and Ions • Molecules: from covalent cpds • Formula units: from ionic cpds • Cations and anions

Atoms, Molecules, Ions • Periodic Table • Metals, nonmetals, metalloids • Periods/rows and groups/columns/families • Naming simple compounds • Binary ionic cpds: name cation first, anion second (likely –ide) • Type 1: ions with a single oxidation state • Type 2: ions with multiple possible oxidation states • Need to use –ic or –ous to distinguish (ic is higher # of two choices) • Need to use Roman Numeral to indicate appropriate oxidation state • Ionic cpds with polyatomic ions • Essentially, same deal with larger anions (mostly; only ammonium is common cation) • Binary covalent cpds: two nonmetals; think nitrogen/oxygen cpds • Don’t use mono for first element

Atoms, Molecules, Ions • Acids • If salt is –ate, becomes –ic • If salt is –ite, becomes –ous • If per- or hypo-, these travel as well