Anthropology Appreciating Human Diversity Fifteenth Edition Conrad Phillip

Anthropology Appreciating Human Diversity Fifteenth Edition Conrad Phillip Kottak University of Michigan Mc. Graw-Hill © 2013 Mc. Graw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. 18 -1

C H A P T E R GENDER 18 -2

GENDER • • • Sex and Gender Recurrent Gender Patterns Gender Roles and Gender Stratification Gender in Industrial Societies Beyond Male and Female Sexual Orientation 18 -3

GENDER • How are biology and culture expressed in human sex/gender systems? • How do gender, gender roles, and gender stratification correlate with other social, economic, and political variables? • What is sexual orientation, and how do sexual practices vary cross-culturally? 18 -4

SEX AND GENDER • Women and men differ genetically • Sexual dimorphism: marked differences in male and female biology besides the primary and secondary sexual features • Sex differences are biological • Gender encompasses traits that a culture assigns to and inculcates in males and females 18 -5

SEX AND GENDER • Gender roles: tasks and activities that a culture assigns to the sexes • Gender stereotypes: oversimplified, strongly held ideas of characteristics of men and women • Gender stratification: unequal distribution of rewards between men and women, reflecting different positions in a social hierarchy • Ilongots 18 -6

Figure 18. 1: Location of Ilongots in the Philippines 18 -7

RECURRENT GENDER PATTERNS • The subsistence contributions of men and women are roughly equal cross-culturally • In domestic activities, female labor dominates • Women tend to work more hours than men do • Women are primary caregivers, but men often play a role 18 -8

RECURRENT GENDER PATTERNS • Differences in male and female reproductive strategies • Women can have only so many babies • Men mate, within and outside marriage, more than women do • Men less restricted than women are, although restrictions are equal in about half the societies studied 18 -9

Table 18. 1: Generalities in the Division of Labor by Gender, Based on Data from 185 Societies 18 -10

Table 18. 2: Time and Effort Expended on Subsistence Activities by Men and Women 18 -11

Table 18. 3: Who Does the Domestic Work? 18 -12

Table 18. 4: Who Has Final Authority over the Care, Handling, and Discipline of Infant Children (Under Four Years Old)? 18 -13

Table 18. 5: Does the Society Allow Multiple Spouses? 18 -14

Table 18. 6: Is There a Double Standard with Respect to PREMARITAL Sex? 18 -15

Table 18. 7: Is There a Double Standard with Respect to EXTRAMARITAL Sex? 18 -16

GENDER ROLES AND GENDER STRATIFICATION • Sanday: gender stratification decreased when men and women made roughly equal contributions to subsistence • Domestic-public dichotomy: strong differentiation between home and the outside world is called the domestic-public dichotomy, or the private-public contrast • Gender stratification is less developed among foragers 18 -17

GENDER ROLES AND GENDER STRATIFICATION • Greater size, strength, and mobility of men led to exclusive service in roles of hunters and warriors • Pregnancy and lactation keep women from being primary hunters in foraging societies • The Agta 18 -18

REDUCED GENDER STRATIFICATION— MATRILINEAL, MATRILOCAL SOCIETIES • Cross-cultural variation in gender status related to rules of descent and postmarital residence • Matrilineal descent: people join mother’s group at birth • Women tend to have high status in matrilineal, matrilocal societies 18 -19

MATRIARCHY • Sanday: Minangkabau a matriarchy because women are the center, origin, and foundation of the social order • Despite special position of women, matriarchy is not the equivalent of female rule 18 -20

INCREASED GENDER STRATIFICATION— PATRILINEAL-PATRILOCAL SOCIETIES • Patrilineal-patrilocal complex: male supremacy is based on patrilineality, patrilocality, and warfare • Patrilineal descent: descent traced through men • Characterizes many societies in highland Papua New Guinea 18 -21

PATRIARCHY AND VIOLENCE • Patriarchy: political system ruled by men in which women have inferior social and political status, including basic human rights • Societies that feature full-fledged patrilinealpatrilocal complex, replete with warfare and intervillage raiding, also typify patriarchy • Gender stratification typically reduced in societies in which women have prominent roles in the economy and social life 18 -22

GENDER IN INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES • Domestic-public dichotomy influences gender stratification in industrial societies • Gender roles changing rapidly in North America • The “traditional” idea that a “woman’s place is in the home” developed among middle- and upper-class Americans as industrialism spread after 1900 18 -23

GENDER IN INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES • Margolis: gendered work, attitudes, and beliefs have varied in response to U. S. economic needs • Changes in economy led to changes in attitudes toward and about women • Between 1970 and 2010, female percentage of American workforce rose from 38% to 47% • As women increasingly work outside the home, ideas about gender roles of males and females changed 18 -24

Table 18. 8: Cash Employment of U. S. Mothers, Wives, and Husbands, 1960– 2010 18 -25

THE FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY • Increasing representation of women and their children among America’s poorest people • Percentage of single-parent (usually femaleheaded) households increasing worldwide • Globally, households headed by women poorer than are those headed by men • One way to improve situation of poor women is to encourage them to organize 18 -26

Table 18. 9: Median Annual Income of U. S. Households by Household Type, 2009 18 -27

Table 18. 10: Percentage of Single-Parent Households, Selected Countries, 1980– 81 and 2008 18 -28

WORK AND HAPPINESS • Correlation between rankings of happiness and of women’s work outside the home • Of 13 countries with greatest female labor force participation, 10 ranked among world’s happiest 18 -29

Table 18. 11: Female Labor Force Participation by Country, 2008 18 -30

BEYOND MALE AND FEMALE • Contemporary U. S. includes individuals who self-identify using such labels as transgender, intersex, third gender, and transsexual • Transgender: social category that includes individuals who may or may not contrast biologically with ordinary males and females • Intersex: conditions involving discrepancy between external and internal genitals • Klinefelter’s syndrome • Turner syndrome 18 -31

BEYOND MALE AND FEMALE • People construct their identities in society • Many individuals with biological conditions see themselves as male or female • Self-identified transgender people tend to be individuals whose gender identity contradicts their biological sex at birth and the gender identity that society assigned to them in infancy • Fear and ignorance related to diversity in gender fuels discrimination 18 -32

SEXUAL ORIENTATION • Sexual orientation refers to person’s habitual sexual attraction to, and sexual activities with, persons of the opposite sex; heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality, asexuality • Each holds different meanings for individuals and groups • In U. S. , tendency to see sexual orientation as fixed and biologically based • Sexual norms vary from culture to culture 18 -33

SEXUAL ORIENTATION • Sex acts involving people of the same sex were absent, rare, or secret in only 37 of 76 societies (Ford and Beach) • In others, various forms of same-sex sexual activity considered normal and acceptable • Sudanese Azande • Etoro of Papua New Guinea • Flexibility in sexual expression seems to be an aspect of our primate heritage 18 -34

Figure 18. 2: The Location of the Etoro, Kaluli, and Sambia in Papua New Guinea 18 -35