Anita Nyberg Centre for Gender Studies Stockholm University

Anita Nyberg Centre for Gender Studies Stockholm University 106 91 Stockholm Sweden

Early discussions about gender equality models – 1950 s and early 1960 Male breadwinner – female carer family Employment for the father, care work in the family for the mother Cash for care Choice for mothers (to care) Equity between women Dual-earner family Employment for both the mother and the father Publicly financed childcare Choice for mothers (to be employed) Equality between parents (in employment)

A new gender equality model – late 1960 s Dual-earner – dual-carer family Employment and care responsibilities for both the mother and the father Publicly financed childcare Turn maternity leave into parental leave Choice for parents Gender quality (care and employment)

Length of Parental Leave and Compensation Level of Earnings Year Length of parental leave Compensation level 1974 6 months 90% 1975 7 months 1978 8 months 1980 12 months 1990 15 months 2002 16 months 80%

Claims on parental leave by gender (%) Share of women and men claiming parental allowance Share of days for which parental allowance are paid to women and men Women Men 1974 100 0 1985 77 23 94 6 1995 72 28 91 9 2005 57 43 80 20 2007 56 44 79 21

Problems Parental leave – but to a high degree used by mothers, not fathers Mothers away from the labour market for a long time – negative effects on women’s situation in the labour market (wages, careers).

”Daddy month” – a non-transferable right of the father to paid parental leave 1995 one ”daddy month” was introduced 2002 a second ”daddy month” was added

Summary - Parental leave When parental leave was transferable, almost all mothers used it and they used most of the parental allowance days. About 45% of the fathers used parental leave too, but they did not use many days. The introduction of the non-transferable ”daddy months” has meant that almost 90% of the fathers take some parental leave and many took one month until 2002, when the non-transferable leave was extended to two months. Now the majority take two months.

Publicly financed childcare In 1974, the government decided on an extensive public child care programme In 1985, the Swedish parliament decided that all children 1. 5– 7 years with working or studying parents and children with special needs were to be entitled a place in public childcare by 1991. In 1995, new legislation, municipalities obliged to provide childcare without unreasonable delay (3 -4 months) to all children 1 -12 years of age with working or studying parents and children with special needs

Extended rights to child care 2001 Childcare for children of unemployed parents 15 hours per week 2002 Childcare for children of parents on parental leave with another child 15 hours per week 2003 Preschool activities for 4 - and 5 -year-olds 15 hours per week, free of charge 2010 Preschool activities for 3 -year olds 15 hours per week, free of charge

Maximum fees per month in pre-schools (2002) Percent of taxable income Maximum fee Euro Child 1 3 per cent 134 Euro Child 2 2 per cent 89 Euro Child 3 1 per cent 45 Euro Child 4 No fee

Summary – Publicly financed child care Right for working and studying parents to have their children in publicly financed child care and for children with special needs But for long demand for child care much bigger than supply Extended rights to children with unemployed parents and parents on parental leave Today a right for children to a place in childcare and part of lifelong learning

New policy measures - 2006 Support of the male-breadwinner - female carer family The municipalities are allowed to introduce child home care allowance – around 300 EURO per month - to parents who do not use publicly financed child care (1994 Support of the dual-earner - dual carer family Introduce a “gender equality” bonus, which means that the parent with the lowest earnings – usually the mother – will receive a tax reduction with 300 EURO per month if she starts working (full-time) after the parental leave and the other parent - usually the father starts taking parental leave.

Thank you!

Fees per month in pre-schools Percent of taxable income Maximum fee Euro Child 1 3 per cent 134 Euro Child 2 2 per cent 89 Euro Child 3 1 per cent 45 Euro Child 4 No fee