Animal Behaviour F 215 control genomes and environment

Animal Behaviour F 215 control, genomes and environment Module 4 – responding to the environment

Introduction to behaviour BEHAVIOUR The way organisms respond to the environment, which enables them to survive and seek out favourable environments. Innate ▪ instinctive, automatic trigger Learned ▪ memory retains information and modifies response

Glossary Ethology Study of behaviour Natural behaviour of animals in their natural environment Psychology Controlled conditions in a lab Interested in how animals learned new patterns of behaviour Behaviouralism Study of behavioural events involving stimuli and response

Learning Outcomes Explain the advantages to organisms of innate behaviour.

Innate behaviour (instinctive) “Pattern of inherited, pre-set behaviour that does not require learning or practice” Survival mechanism In invertebrates: escape predators, locate and stay in a suitable habitat and locate food Examples Dragon fly Waggle dance by worker honey bees

Innate behaviours: Instinctive Genetically determined: Environment has no impact Passed to offspring via reproduction Rigid and inflexible Patterns of behaviour are the same in members of a species: stereotyped/ stereotypical Automatic: does not require thought. Rapid response Simple nervous system is enough. Unintelligent all

Dragonfly nymph Crawls out of the pond it has spent the first few years of it’s life in Drags itself up a plant stem Attaches it feet firmly Hangs on as the skin splits As it emerges it follows a distinctive pattern of behaviour

Waggle dance by honey bees https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=-7 ij. I-g 4 j. Hg More complex innate behaviour Used by worker honey bees to communicate the direction and distance of food source to other worker bees

Find your own examples Of Innate behaviour Explain their importance List below:

Innate behaviour Innate responses suit species with a short lifespan, no parental care, solitary lifestyle to enable them to survive. But: All animals including humans show some innate behaviour patterns See http: //www. ck 12. org/book/CK-12 -Biology. Concepts/section/10. 4/ http: //listverse. com/2012/01/28/top-10 -human-reflexesand-natural-instincts/ Mainly reflexes in Humans List some

Learning Outcomes Describe escape reflexes, taxes and kineses as examples of geneticallydetermined innate behaviours. .

Genes and Behaviour Simplest types of genetically determined innate behaviour are seen in invertebrates Three examples are: Escape reflexes Kineses Taxes

REFLEX: REFLEX: Performed without conscious thought as an automatic response to a stimulus. Simplest type of animal behaviour Type of innate behaviour A sudden stimulus induces an automatic, involuntary and stereotyped/steroetypical response Many are protective Move away from potential danger, usually predators Follow a specific pattern Determined by inherited nervous pathways

Escape Reflex The function of the escape reflex is to avoid predators Involuntary responses that follow a specific pattern in response to a given stimulus. Example Earthworms withdraw underground if it receives a light touch on the front end

Root and suck reflex Root reflex. This reflex begins when the corner of the baby's mouth is stroked or touched. The baby will turn his or head and open his or her mouth to follow and "root" in the direction of the stroking. This helps the baby find the breast or bottle to begin feeding. Suck reflex. Rooting helps the baby become ready to suck. When the roof of the baby's mouth is touched, the baby will begin to suck. This reflex does not begin until about the 32 nd week of pregnancy and is not fully developed until about 36 weeks. Premature babies may have a weak or immature sucking ability because of this. Babies also have a hand-to-mouth reflex that goes with rooting and sucking and may suck on fingers or hands

KINESIS: KINESIS: an undirected movement of a cell, organism, or part in response to an external stimulus An orientation behaviour where the rate of movement increases when the organism is in unfavourable conditions Organisms’ movement response is affected by a nondirectional stimulus Rate of movement is related to the intensity of the stimulusnot its direction Orthokinesis: changes in speed of movement Klinokinesis: changes in rate of turning (lower the rate, more likely to leave)

Kineses Example Woodlice avoid predation by living in dark, damp areas In a choice chamber, woodlice move faster and turn less where it’s dry This is a purely physiological response- don’t actively seek out other conditions WATCH: https: //www. youtube. com/watc h? v=84 QRiu. Vvz 84

Kinesis A response involving changed level of activity Stimulus = humidity The higher the humidity the slower the rate of movement.

Taxes “Directional” orientation response The direction of movement is in relation to the stimulus triggering the behavioural response ▪ ▪ Positive phototaxis Negative phototaxis Positive chemotaxis Negative chemotaxis

Taxes A directional locomotory response Examples Maggots have photoreceptors at anterior ends ▪ Show negative phototaxis Nematode worms show chemotaxes

Taxes: Nematode worm Chemotaxis Chemoreceptors in its lips sense chemical signals in the air moves its head from side to side in order to compare signal strengths and detect the direction of a chemical gradient before moving its whole body up (positive chemotaxis) or down (negative chemotaxis). Woodlice show negative phototaxis

Do humans demonstrate innate behaviour? Reflex action (taught in module 2) “a relatively rapid, automatic response to a stimulus” A reflex arc ▪ ▪ ▪ Stretch stimulus Receptor detects stimulus Action potentials along sensory neurone Motor neurone carries action potential to effector Effector brings about response (muscle contraction)

Stereotyped behaviour Innate behaviour is often characterised as being stereotyped/stereotypical. OR FAP……

FAP: Fixed action pattern Stereotyped behaviour/FAP: An innate behaviour pattern that is stereotyped, spontaneous, and independent of immediate control, genetically encoded, and independent of individual learning. It is triggered by a specific stimulus and continues to its end without regard to immediate consequences or feedback.

FAP: Sand wasps Read page 241 Read https: //www. cals. ncsu. edu/course/ent 425/ tutorial/Behavior/sphex. html See: https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=7 Gk. U Hnr. Fpwc

FAPS FAPs can be modified by: Experience Precise conditions in which the sign stimuli are presented (e. g. red spot on gulls indicated begging, response varies according to spot, e. g. bird calls influenced by upbringing) Can be acquired after learning Instinctive and automatic

Example: Tinbergen 3 -spined stickleback Instinctive aggression in male sticklebacks towards anything red during the mating season Tinbergen noted that the female will follow almost any small red object to the nest, and once within the nest, neither the male nor and red object need be present Any object touching her near the base of her tail will cause her to release her eggs. Courtship displays Hunting and food gathering Male fruit fly will perform a courtship display for a cork doused in pheromones

Exam Tip An innate response will only survive if it confers an advantage to the species Examiners could link questions on behaviour to natural selection Exam questions could feature animals that you have never heard of. It is more important that you can identify the type of behaviour from the information given.

Learning Outcomes Explain the meaning of the term learned behaviour. Describe habituation, imprinting, classical and operant conditioning, latent and insight learning as examples of learned behaviours.

LEARNED BEHAVIOUR: animal responses that change or adapt with experience. There a range of learned behaviours identified, from simply learning not to respond to a repeated stimulation, to the ability to consider a problem and formulate a response

Learned Behaviour “behaviour which is acquired/changed/altered/learnt and modified in response to experience” Determined by the relationship between the genetic makeup of the individual and environmental influences Not passed on by reproduction but by teaching Can be altered by experience Variety is shown between members of a species/ variable response Learned behaviours form the basis of all intelligent and intellectual activity.

Types of Learned Behaviour Habituation Learn to ignore stimuli because it is not followed by reward or punishment Animals learn to ignore certain stimuli because repeated exposure to the stimulus results in neither a reward nor a punishment. Screens out non-dangerous stimuli Avoids energy wastage If the stimulus is not given for a long time, the response reappears When habituated to one stimulus, will usually treat similar stimuli in the same way (generalisation) Loss of response may be cause by fatigue or sensory adaptation

Habituation examples Examples: Birds learning to ignore scarecrows Humans sleeping near railways Find some other examples

Eric Kendel: Giant sea slugs: No fundamental difference in nerve cell structure /synapses Much simpler nervous system in sea slugs Large accessible neurones No myelin sheath: what does this mean? Neurones have large diameters! Why?

Sea slugs: Breathes through gill Upper side of body Water expelled through siphon tube If syphon is touched: gill is withdrawn back into cavity Protective reflex BUT Live in sea, buffered by waves Learn not to withdraw gill each time wave touches them

Why is this an advantage to the sea slug? Whiteboards reasons! THINK! Ignore unimportant/harmless/natural repeated stimuli SO more receptive to important stimuli More time for oxygen uptake as gill is exposed Prevents build up of carbon dioxide Can remain active whilst being touched e. g. Waves Saves energy being wasted e. g. Withdrawing gill.

What is habituation? It is a form of learning in which an animal responds less and less to a repeated stimulus. Habituation is a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations. Habituation is important in filtering the large amounts of information received from the surrounding environment. By habituating to less important signals, an animal can focus its attention on the most important features of its environment. (rewarding/threatening!) Habituation can be short term Habituation can be permanent as long as the connections in brain are strengthened and used

WATCH: Habituation in babies: Startle reflexes/ Moro reflex become habituated as the baby grows.

IMPRINTING: Come to recognise (another animal, person, or thing) as a parent or other object of habitual trust This involves young animals becoming associated with (imprinting on) another organism It is usually the parent. Occurs during a brief, genetically determined critical/sensitive period, usually shortly after birth A particular stimulus becomes permanently associated with a particular response Irreversible Influences future patterns of social behaviour Usually involves learning the characteristics of parents so can recognisee parents + members of species Allows young to learn skills such as flight and knowing to seek out the appropriate type of organism for mating. Occurs in adults, to recognise offspring Occurs in animals with social bonding importance

Imprinting examples In pioneering work by Lorenz, goslings were shown to follow the first moving thing seen upon hatching. After that, they will only follow (and learn from) objects that look like the first object. Watch; https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=cg. CT PBU 69 Sw

Conditioning: Also called associative learning Animal learns to associate a particular behaviour pattern with reward/ punishments

Classical conditioning: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: a form of learning in which two unrelated stimuli are applied to an animal, one a ‘normal response’ another unrelated. After repeated exposure to both stimuli together the animal will eventually response with the normal response to the unrelated stimulus. This is called a conditioned response

Classical conditioning: Responding to a stimulus that was previously neutral Uses conditioned reflexes Requires development of a new nervous pathway in which the association area in the cortex of the brain makes a link between 2 different types of stimuli and gives the same response Uses positive/negative reinforcement Unconditioned stimuli=food This type of learning is passive and involuntary

Classical conditioning example: Russian scientist Pavlov Observed that when dogs were shown food, or when they smelt food, they salivated. This is a normal reflex action. It is a response to an unconditioned stimulus – the sight or smell of food. He rang a bell when he was about to give the dogs food The dogs began to salivate upon hearing the bell, even if they could not see or smell food. The ringing is known as a conditioned stimulus which leads to a new reflex called a conditioned response. This is classical conditioning where animals can learn to relate a pair of events and respond to the first in anticipation of the second.

Pavlov's findings:

OPERANT CONDTIONING Also known as trial and error learning. The term is used to describe the learning that takes place in animals given reward or punishment to reinforce the performance of a particular operation. One stimulus only This type of learning is seen in rats and pigeons in a ‘skinner box’, where operation of a lever rewards the animal with food.

In classical conditioning, an animal associates a particular stimulus with a reinforcer In operant conditioning, the animal associates a behavioural act with a reinforcer In classical conditioning, the reinforcer is controlled by a human In operant, it is controlled by the animal This type of learning is still active and to an extent voluntary. In natural circumstances, we often refer to operant conditioning as trial and error learning.

Example of operant conditioning The scientist B. F Skinner became interested in creating a specific behavioural reaction to a stimulus by adding an element of reward or punishment. In several experiments with rats and pigeons, using a Skinner box, he showed that animals in the box would at first randomly press a lever which resulted in the reward of a food pellet. This reward led to increasing frequency of pressing the lever because the animals had learned to associate this operation (hence operant conditioning) of pressing the level with the reward of food. A variety of rewards and punishments (reinforces) can be used in conditioning animal behaviours. The training of dogs is substantially based on the rewards of attention from owners. Monkeys can be conditioned with ‘social rewards’ such as seeing other monkeys. Watch: https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=X-lg. Mnv. PDQ 0

Rat in a Skinner box Rat investigates cage, trying to escape Presses lever by chance Food/reward appears Positive reinforcement Repetition/reward Associative learning: operant conditioning

Latent learning LATENT LEARNING: a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without obvious reinforcement to be applied later. Store information while exploring the environment, and uses it sometime later Examples – insight learning (Kohler)

Latent learning: Animals will explore new surroundings and retain information about their surrounding that is not of immediate use and may be essential to staying alive at some future time. No apparent reward Demonstrates exploratory behaviour Make quick escape if danger threatens

Example of latent learning: Young rabbits explore the surroundings of their burrows, learning the features of the environment This knowledge can be life - saving if it helps the rabbit escape a predator in later life.

Insight learning Regarded as the highest form of learning. Solve problems by internal mental processes which cannot be observed It is based on the ability to think and reason in order to solve problems or deal with situations in ways that do not resemble simple fixed, reflex responses or the need for repeated trial and error Involves cognition Once solved, the solution to the problem is remembered.

Insight learning Kohler: In Wolfgang Köhler’s work, chimpanzees were presented with bananas hung out of reach and a set of boxes The chimpanzees were able to stack the boxes on top of each other to reach the bananas. Since then, behaviour among other apes such as gorillas, orang-utans and gibbons, has been studied

Insight Learning Results of experiments indicates relatively “intelligent” animals Show Inspiration Reasoning in animals brains Work out how a pattern of behaviour might solve a problem Similar to human problem solving

Insight Learning Problems Experiments can not be repeated Amusing “anecdotes” Was it by chance Watch http: //study. com/academy/lesson/insightlearning-wolfgang-kohler-theory-definitionexamples. html https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=6 YWr. Pzsm. EE

Summary tasks 1. 2. Compare Innate behaviour and Learned behaviours Complete a table on Innate behaviour and Learned behaviour showing the following: Type of behaviour Reflexes Kineses Taxes Stereotypical/FAP Definition/ explanation Advantage of this behaviour Named example

Learned behaviour Type of behaviour Habituation Imprinting Conditioning: classical Conditioning: operant Latent learning Insight learning Definition/ explanation Advantage of this behaviour Named example

Learning Outcomes Describe, using one example, the advantages of social behaviour in primates. Tasks: Read the summary sheet Go through the PP for visuals and links

Social behaviour Different tasks can be shared out among different individuals This makes the group more successful at Finding food Avoiding predators Defending their territory By the way, Meerkats are not primates, they’re just really cute and live in social groups! Simples!

Social Behaviour in primates Grooming helps to maintain social ranking

Social Behaviour in primates Chimpanzees fishing for termites with tools that they have made

Social behaviour in primates Watch the “primates” episode of life https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Qjx. VMW 0 FYb. U 1 Hour! Make notes on the social behaviour of primates ▪ Facial expressions ▪ Grooming relationships ▪ Rankings in society ▪ Body language ▪ Vocalisations ▪ Cultural learning

Primate Behaviour

Primates Most primates live in family groups where the young remain until they reach sexual maturity Organisation of the group usually shows a hierarchy Different individuals have different status and different roles Hierarchies lead to social control and protects all members of the group

Social behaviour in primates are derived from the extended dependency period of the offspring

Chimpanzees Constant communication Mobile and expressive faces Body postures Vocalisations Grooming relationships ▪ Help to maintain the social hierarchy Each young chimp grows up knowing its place in society

Gorillas Live in troops of about 10 individuals Silverback male Adult females Offspring Grooming reinforces relationships between individuals Communication Variety of calls, displays and grunts

Social Behaviour

Facial expressions

Advantages of social behaviour Maternal care and group protection enhances the survival rate of the young Young learn from the adults Security of a group enhances the survival and learning of immature young Knowledge and protection of food sources are shared with the group Greater ability to detect and deter predators

Try a quiz! http: //www. proprofs. com/quiz- school/story. php? title=innate-vs-learnedbehaviour-quiz