Anatomy and Physiology INTRODUCTION Study of anatomy and

Anatomy and Physiology INTRODUCTION - Study of anatomy and physiology is an ever developing science. - Greek and Latin form the basis for the language of anatomy and physiology. DEFINITIONS: A. ANATOMY = the study of the structure (morphology, form) of body parts. B. PHYSIOLOGY = the study of the function of body parts. Anatomy dictates function!

Characteristics of Life • Movement – change in position; motion • Responsiveness – reaction to a change • Growth – increase in body size; no change in shape • Reproduction – production of new organisms and new cells • Respiration – obtaining oxygen; removing carbon dioxide; releasing energy from foods

Levels of Organization STRUCTURAL LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION: A. The atom [i. e. Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), or Oxygen(O)] is the least complex level. An atom is defined as the smallest particle of an element. Atoms combine with (react with) other atoms to form. . . B. molecules [i. e. carbon dioxide (CO 2), water (H 20)]. A molecule is defined as a particle composed of 2 or more joined atoms. Molecules combine with other molecules to form. . . C. macromolecules (i. e. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids). A macromolecule is defined as a large molecule. Macromolecules combine with other macromolecules to form. . . D. organelles (i. e. cell membrane, nucleus, ribosomes). An organelle is defined as a small organ of a cell, which performs a particular function. Organelles collectively compose. . .

Levels of Organization E. cells The cell is defined as the basic unit of structure and function of living organisms! Each cell has a set of organelles and performs a particular function (i. e. a red blood cell has a biconcave shape and is a nucleate. This structure increases its surface area, allowing for the transport of more oxygen 0. Some cells have all of the machinery that they need to live. Similar cells are arranged into. . . F. tissues (i. e. epithelia, connective, muscle, nervous). A tissue is defined as a group of similar cells that performs a specialized function. Two or more tissues combine to form. . .

Levels of Organization G. organs (i. e. skin, heart, brain). An organ is defined as a structure consisting of a group of tissues that performs a specialized function. Two or more organs combine to form. . . H. organ systems (i. e. integumentary, cardiovascular). An organ system is defined as a group of organs that act together to carry on a specialized function. There are 11 organ systems. The eleven organ systems collectively form the. . . I. human organism An organism is the most complex level of organization and is defined as an individual living thing. J. The levels of hierarchy could be further extended to include; populations, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere.

Levels of Organization Major Organs: bones ligaments cartilages Major Functions: provide framework protect soft tissue provide attachments for muscles produce blood cells store inorganic salts Skeletal system

Levels of Organization Major Organs: skin hair nails sweat glands sebaceous glands Major Functions: protect tissue regulate body temperature support sensory receptors Integumentary system

Levels of Organization Major Organs: muscles Major Functions: cause movement maintain posture produce body heat Muscular system

Levels of Organization Major Organs: brain spinal cord nerves sense organs Major Functions: detect changes receive and interpret sensory information stimulate muscles and glands Nervous system

Levels of Organization Major Organs: pituitary gland thyroid gland parathyroid glands adrenal glands pancreas ovaries testes pineal gland thymus Major Functions: control metabolic activities of body structures through the release of hormones Endocrine system

Levels of Organization Major Organs: heart arteries capillaries veins Major Functions: move blood through vessels and transport substances throughout the body Cardiovascular system

Levels of Organization Major Organs: lymphatic vessels lymph nodes thymus spleen Major Functions: return tissue fluid to blood carry certain absorbed food molecules defend the body against infection Lymphatic system

Levels of Organization Major Organs: mouth tongue teeth salivary glands pharynx esophagus stomach liver and gallbladder pancreas small and large intestines Major Functions: receive, breakdown, and absorb food eliminate unabsorbed material Digestive system

Levels of Organization Major Organs: nasal cavity pharynx larynx trachea bronchi lungs Major Functions: intake and output of air exchange gases between air and blood Respiratory system

Levels of Organization Major Organs: kidneys ureters urinary bladder urethra Major Functions: remove waste from blood maintain water and electrolyte balance store and transport urine Urinary system

Levels of Organization Major Organs: scrotum testes epididymides ductus deferentia seminal vesicles prostate gland bulbourethral glands urethra penis Major Functions: produce and maintain sperm cells transfer sperm cells into female reproductive tract Male reproductive system

Levels of Organization Major Organs: ovaries uterine tubes uterus vagina clitoris vulva Major Functions: produce and maintain eggs cells receive sperm cells support development of an embryo function in the birth process Female reproductive system

Anatomical Terminology Anatomical Position = standing erect, face forward, upper limbs at sides, palms forward.

Directional terminology

Anatomical Terminology Relative Position 1. Superior = above; Inferior = below; 2. Anterior = front; Posterior = back; 3. Ventral = front; Dorsal = back; 4. Medial = center; Lateral = side; 5. Ipsilateral = same side; Contralateral = other side 6. Proximal = closer to trunk; Distal = farther from trunk; 7. Superficial = surface; Deep = internal.

Dissection planes

Anatomical Terminology Body Sections (cuts, planes) 1. Sagittal cut: divides the body into right and left portions. midsagittal (median) = equal right and left portions. 2. Transverse Cut: (or horizontal): divides the body into superior and inferior portions 3. Coronal Cut: (or frontal): divides the body into anterior and posterior portions. 4. Cross-section: cut at 90 degrees to long axis of the object 5. Oblique section: cut at an angle across an object 6. Longitudinal section: cut with the long axis of an object

Anatomical Terminology

Anatomical Terminology

Organization of the Body

Organization of the Body

Organization of the Body ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY AXIAL PORTION APPENDICULAR PORTION head arms neck legs trunk

Organization of the Body Axial Portion DORSAL CAVITY VENTRAL CAVITY CRANIAL CAVITY brain THORACIC CAVITY lungs mediastinum VERTEBRAL CANAL thymus spinal cord heart esophagus trachea * Note that the diaphragm muscle separates the thoracic from abdominopelvic cavities. ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY ABDOMINAL CAVITY stomach liver spleen gallbladder small intestine large intestine PELVIC CAVITY urinarybladder internal reproductive organs * Note that the kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, and ureters are behind the abdominopelvic This is referred to as RETROPERITONEAL. cavity.

Organization of the Body

Organization of the Body

Anatomical Terminology

Anatomical Terminology

Anatomical Terminology

Anatomical Terminology

Characteristics of Life Continued • Digestion – breakdown of food substances into simpler forms • Absorption – passage of substances through membranes and into body fluids • Circulation – movement of substances in body fluids • Assimilation – changing of absorbed substances into chemically different forms • Excretion – removal of wastes produced by metabolic reactions

Maintenance of Life • Life depends on five (5) environmental factors: • Water • Food • Oxygen • Heat • Pressure • Water - most abundant substance in body - required for metabolic processes - required for transport of substances - regulates body temperature

Maintenance of Life • Food - provides necessary nutrients - supplies energy - supplies raw materials • Oxygen (gas) - one-fifth of air - used to release energy from nutrients • Heat - form of energy - partly controls rate of metabolic reactions • Pressure - application of force on an object - atmospheric pressure – important for breathing - hydrostatic pressure – keeps blood flowing

Maintenance of Life Homeostasis 1. Definition = the tendency of an organism to maintain a stable internal environment. 2. All life processes and metabolic reactions work to maintain homeostasis. 3. Homeostatic Control Mechanisms – monitors aspects of the internal environment and corrects as needed. Variations are within limits. There are three (3) parts: a. b. c. Receptor – senses change in environment Control Center – Regulates set-point of variables Effector – organ that acts in response to changes 4. Example = maintenance of body temperature at 98. 6ºF/37ºC. 5. There are two (2) types: 1. Negative feedback mechanisms 2. Positive feedback mechanisms

Maintenance of Life Negative feedback summary: • Prevents sudden, severe changes in the body • Corrects the set point • Causes opposite of bodily disruption to occur, i. e. the ‘negative’ • Limits chaos in the body by creating stability • Most common type of feedback loop • Examples: body temperature, blood pressure & glucose regulation

Maintenance of Life Control center (set point) Receptors Stimulus (Change occurs in internal environment. ) (Change is compared to the set point. ) Effectors (muscles or glands) Response (Change is corrected. )

Maintenance of Life Positive feedback summary: • Increases (accelerates) the actions of the body • Produces more instability in the body • Produces more chaos in the body • There are only a few types necessary for our survival • Positive feedback mechanisms are short-lived • Controls only infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustments • Considered to be the uncommon loop • Examples: blood clotting and child birth

Positive feedback in child birth