Anatomical position standing upright with palms facing forward

Anatomical position – standing upright with palms facing forward Superficial anatomy breaks the body into anatomical landmarks and regions n Sectional anatomy provides directional references n

Figure 1. 7 Anatomical Landmarks Figure 1. 7 a

Figure 1. 7 b

Figure 1. 8 Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Figure 1. 8 a

Figure 1. 8 b, c

Figure 1. 9 Directional References Figure 1. 9

Planes and Sections are important in visualizing structures Transverse plane divides the body into superior and inferior n Frontal (coronal) plane divides the body into anterior and posterior n Sagittal plane divides the body into left and right n n Midsagittal divides the body exactly down the middle

Figure 1. 10 Planes of Section Figure 1. 10

Body Cavities n Body cavities are internal chambers holding vital organs Cavities protect vital organs n Cavities allow organs to change in shape and size n n Two body cavities Dorsal body cavity includes the cranial cavity and the spinal cavity n Ventral body cavity includes the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity n

Figure 1. 12 a Body Cavities Figure 1. 12 a, b

Thoracic Cavities The thoracic cavity contains the heart and lungs. n It is subdivided into the left and right pleural cavities and the mediastinum n Each pleural cavity contains one lung lined by the visceral and parietal pleura n The mediastinum contains the pericardium, another serous membrane that surrounds the heart n PLAY Animation: Heart Dissection

Abdominopelvic Cavity n The abdominopelvic cavity is lined by the peritoneum n The abdominal cavity extends from the diaphragm to the superior margins of the pelvis n liver, stomach, spleen and most of the large intestine

Abdominopelvic Cavity n The pelvic cavity is bordered by the pelvis, with a floor of muscle n reproductive organs, urinary bladder and the final portion of the large intestine PLAY Animation: Digestive System Dissection

Clinical technology allows many different views of the body X-rays n Computerized tomography (CT) scans n Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans n Ultrasound images n Spiral CT scans n Digital subtraction angiography images (DSA) n Positron emission tomography (PET) scans n

Figure 1. 13 X-rays Figure 1. 13

Figure 1. 14 Common scanning techniques Figure 1. 14

Figure 1. 15 Special Scanning Methods Figure 1. 15 c

You should now be familiar with: The characteristics of life. n The sciences of anatomy and physiology and their various subdivisions. n The levels of organization in the human body. n The definition and importance of homeostasis. n The terminology associated with superficial and sectional anatomy and the body cavities. n

Tissues and tissue types n Tissues are: n Collections of specialized cells and cell products organized to perform a limited number of functions n Histology n = study of tissues The four tissue types are: Epithelial n Connective n Muscular n Nervous n

Epithelial tissue n Includes glands and epithelium n Glands are secretory Is avascular n Forms a protective barrier that regulates permeability n Cells may show polarity n

Functions of epithelium Physical protection n Control permeability n Provide sensation n Produce specialized secretions n

Specializations of epithelium Perform secretory functions n Perform transport functions n Maintain physical integrity n Ciliated epithelia move materials across their surface n

The Polarity of Epithelial Cells

Maintaining the integrity of epithelium Cells attach via cell adhesion molecules (CAM) n Cells attach at specialized cell junctions n Tight junctions n Desmosomes n Gap junctions n

Intercellular connections

Structure of typical epithelium n Basal lamina attaches to underlying surface Lamina lucida n Lamina densa n n Germinative cells replace short-lived epithelial cells

Classification of epithelia n Number of cell layers Simple n Stratified n n Shape of apical surface cells Squamous n Cuboidal n Columnar n

Squamous Epithelia

Cuboidal Epithelia

Cuboidal Epithelia

Columnar Epithelia

Columnar Epithelia

Columnar Epithelia

Transitional Epithelium

Glandular epithelia n Exocrine glands n n Secrete through ducts onto the surface of the gland Endocrine glands n Release hormones into surrounding fluid

Glandular secretions can be: Merocrine (product released through exocytosis) n Apocrine (involves the loss of both product and cytoplasm) n Holocrine (destroys the cell) n

Mechanisms of Glandular Secretion

Glands n Unicellular n n Individual secretory cells Multicellular Organs containing glandular epithelium n Classified according to structure n

A Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands

Connective tissue functions: Establishing a structural framework n Transporting fluids and dissolved materials n Protecting delicate organs n Supporting, surrounding and interconnecting tissues n Storing energy reserves n Defending the body from microorganisms n

A Classification of Connective Tissues

Connective tissues contain n n Specialized cells Matrix n Composed of extracellular protein fibers and a ground substance

Connective tissue proper Contains varied cell populations n Contains various fiber types n A syrupy ground substance n

Fluid connective tissue Contains a distinctive cell population n Watery ground substance with dissolved proteins n Two types n Blood n Lymph n

Supporting connective tissues Less diverse cell population n Dense ground substance n Closely packed fibers n Two types n Cartilage n Bone n

Connective tissue proper n Contains fibers, a viscous ground substance, and a varied cell population. n The ground substance is the non-living material in which the cells and protein fibres are found. n Can contain varying amounts of water. n Can be of viscous (blood), semi-solid (cartilage) or solid (bone). n The ground substance and the extracellular proteins form the matrix.

n Types of cells found in connective tissue: Macrophage n Adipocytes n Mesenchymal cells n Fibroblasts n Melanocytes n Mast cells n Lymphocytes n Microphages n

Connective tissue proper n Three types of fiber n n n Collagen fibers Reticular fibers Elastic fibers

Connective tissue proper Classified as loose or dense n Loose n Embryonic mesenchyme, mucous connective tissues n Areolar tissue n Adipose tissue n Reticular tissue n n Dense regular CT n Dense irregular CT n

The Cells and Fibers of Connective Tissue Proper

Connective Tissue in Embryos

Adipose and Reticular Tissues

Dense Connective Tissues

Dense Connective Tissues

Dense Connective Tissues

Fluid connective tissues Distinctive collections of cells in a fluid matrix n Blood n n Formed elements and plasma n Red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets Arteries carry blood away, veins carry to the heart n Capillaries allow diffusion into the interstitial fluid n n Lymph n Interstitial fluid entering the lymphatic vessels

Formed Elements of the Blood

Supporting connective tissues Cartilage and bone support the rest of the body n Cartilage n Grows via interstitial and appositional growth n Matrix is a firm gel containing chondroitin sulfate n Cells called chondrocytes n Cells found in lacunae n Perichondrium separates cartilage from surrounding tissues n Three types: hyaline, elastic and fibrocartilage n

The Perichondrium and Types of Cartilage

The Perichondrium and Types of Cartilage II

The Perichondrium and Types of Cartilage III

Bone, or osseus tissue n Has osteocytes n Depend on diffusion through canaliculi for nutrients Little ground substance n Dense mineralized matrix n Surrounded by periosteum n

Bone

Membranes are simple organs Form a barrier n Composed of epithelium and connective tissue n Four types n Cutaneous n Synovial n Serous n Mucous n

Membranes

Mucous membranes Line cavities that communicate with the exterior n Contain lamina propria n

Serous membranes Line sealed internal cavities n Form transudate n

n Cutaneous membrane n n Covers the body surface Synovial membrane n Incomplete lining within joint cavities

Organs and systems are interconnected n Network of connective tissue proper consisting of Superficial fascia n Deep fascia n Subserous fascia n

The Fasciae

Muscle tissue Specialized for contraction n Three types n Skeletal n Cardiac n Smooth n

Muscle Tissue

Muscle Tissue

Muscle Tissue

Skeletal muscle Cells are multinucleate n Striated voluntary muscle n Divides via satellite cells n

Cardiac muscle Cardiocytes occur only in the heart n Striated involuntary muscle n Relies on pacemaker cells for regular contraction n

Smooth muscle tissue Non-striated involuntary muscle n Can divide and regenerate n

Neural tissue Conducts electrical impulses n Conveys information from one area to another n

Neural tissue cells n Neurons n n Transmit information Neuroglia Support neural tissue n Help supply nutrients to neurons n

Neural Tissue

Neural anatomy Cell body n Dendrites n Axon (nerve fiber) n n Carries information to other neurons

Inflammation and regeneration Injured tissues respond in coordinated fashion n Homeostasis restored by inflammation and regeneration n

Inflammatory response Isolates injured area n Damaged cells, tissue components and dangerous microorganisms removed n n n Infection avoided Regeneration restores normal function

An Introduction to Inflammation

Aging and tissue repair Change with age n Repair and maintenance less efficient n Structure altered n Chemical composition altered n

Aging and cancer incidence Incidence of cancer increases with age n 70 -80% of all cases due to exposure to chemicals or environmental factors n

Changes in a Tissue under Stress