Americas Musical Landscape 6 th edition Part 3

America’s Musical Landscape 6 th edition Part 3 The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics © 2010 The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved

Latin Popular Musics n n Latin American music has enriched the popular and concert music of the United States for at least a century and a half n This music is of more significance to North American popular music today than ever before n Southwest United States n Traditional Spanish dance music is played n Other parts of the country n Latin American dance music has affected pop and jazz “Latin Pop” is a category in its own right on the Billboard trade magazine popular music charts © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 2

Latin Popular Musics: Early Twentieth Century n Latin popular dances took the United States by storm n First as exotic curiosities, then as fads, and finally entering mainstream American popular music n The Argentinean tango n The first Latin rhythm to affect American pop n A graceful, yet torrid dance, sedate in tempo, sensuous n 1911: The tango was introduced to Broadway audiences n 1913: Made widely popular as danced by Irene and Vernon Castle in a musical n A sophisticated fusion of European and African ingredients © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 3

Latin Popular Musics: The Tango and the Habanera n Lyrical tango melodies often suggest the influence of Argentina’s Italian population n Tango rhythm is that of the Cuban dance, the habanera… n n n Subdivides eighth-notes (four beats) into 3 + 2 Habanera beat has influenced United States popular music… n In Louis Moreau Gottschalk’s piano pieces n Jelly Roll Morton called it the “Spanish tinge” in ragtime n W. C. Handy used habanera rhythm in the four-line verse— ”tango section”—between stanzas of “St. Louis Blues” The habanera beat has been heard as the basic rhythm of numerous pop styles © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 4

Latin Popular Musics: Influence of Latin Performers n 1930 s: Several Latin dances entered American pop through big band music n n Several renowned Latin performers began their careers at about that time n n Especially that of popular bandleader Xavier Cugat, born in Spain and raised in Cuba Appearing in popular stage shows and later in film musicals n Desi Arnaz and Carmen Miranda Three Latin areas—the Caribbean, Brazil, Mexico—have influenced popular, classical, and religious music in North America © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 5

The Caribbean n The slave trade bringing blacks to North America carried many slaves to the Caribbean islands n These slaves managed better than their northern counterparts to preserve their cultural traditions n n The drumming largely forbidden in the North was tolerated south of the border African tribal religions blended better with the Christian Catholicism prevalent in Latin America than with the Protestantism characteristic of the North © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 6

The Caribbean n Since 1898 Puerto Ricans arrived to settle primarily in New York City n Cubans have come to New York City as well as to Florida n Cubans and Puerto Ricans brought African-derived musical and dance forms to the United States n n Because more African slaves originally were brought to Cuba, the black Cuban population is sizable and the African influence on its culture is strong Chicago and Los Angeles have people from Haiti, Trinidad, and other areas of the West Indies © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 7

The Caribbean Santeria: The Way of the Saints n Santeria is a religion created in the New World by slaves brought from West Africa to the Caribbean sugar plantations n Nominally converted to Catholicism, slaves often fused their traditional beliefs and rituals with elements of their new religion n Thus, in Cuba the religious practice called Santeria evolved § In the United States Santeria has members of the Cuban, Puerto Rican, African American, and Anglo. American communities n Music is important to Santeria © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 8

Santeria: The Music n Traditional rhythms of Cuban batá drums accompany rituals n Batá are double-headed, hourglass-shaped drums n Believed to be shaped like thunder ax of a god n Both heads of the drums are sounded with the hands n Each rhythm constitutes a musical prayer to a specific god n An oral tradition rooted in ancient Africa, ensembles evolve their own performance style and technique n Each Santeria song is associated with a particular deity n Sung without harmony in call-and-response fashion n The Leader improvises phrases in an open, relaxed vocal style characteristic of African practice © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 9

The Caribbean: Bomba n Bomba = African-derived Puerto Rican couple dance; one of the first Latin dances to become popular north of the border n Allowing the man great flexibility and freedom to display dancing skills n n n guiro The female performs fixed steps The song’s text—in call-and-response fashion—concerns daily events With drums, optional maracas, guiro (see photo) and cowbell © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 10

The Caribbean: Rumba n Rumba: A group of Afro-Cuban musical and dance forms n Dancing couples hold each other a bit apart, shoulders level, moving hips n Rhythm of two or four beats per measure, divided according to clave rhythm, tapped using claves (see image), which underlies Cuban dance music (refer to figure 12. 3, page 212) claves First two measures: Habanera rhythm; second measure sounds on beats two and three; tempo variable but never very rapid © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 11

Rumba is the style at the deepest roots of Cuban music n Arrived in Cuba with African slaves n Soon African languages were replaced by Spanish n Melody lines adapted scales and figures from Spanish songs n This synthesis seeded all Cuban music that followed… n Including son, chachacha, conga, mambo, salsa, cabaret music, pop songs, classical Cuban compositions n Around the world rumba reached into… n Rhythm and blues, disco, Spanish flamenco-pop, African guitar-rock n Rumba continues to evolve © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 12

Rumba: Instruments n Traditional instruments add to the exotic flavor of rumba n Bongos n n n Pairs of drums of different size Held between the knees Usually played with the fingers and hand, sometimes with a stick © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics Bongos 13

Rumba: Conga Drums, Timbales, Maracas n The Conga drum is the largest of the Latin instruments n n n Timbales n n Often played in pairs Sound is produced by their muleskin head n Timbre varying according to whether it is struck by the heel, palm, or fingers of the hand Pairs of metal drums mounted on a stand, struck with a stick Maracas n Pairs of gourds filled with pebbles or seeds n Shaken or rotated by handles attached to one end © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 14

The Rumba in the United States n 1930 s—Cuban and Puerto Rican musicians performed rumbas in New York’s uptown Latin district, El Barrio n Xavier Cugat and other bandleaders entertained downtown ballroom crowds in a rhythmically simplified Americanized version of the rumba n Tin Pan Alley songwriters produced songs with Latin American flavor, such as… n n “Heat Wave, ” by Irving Berlin “Begin the Beguine, ” by Cole Porter n The beguine is a native West Indies dance © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 15

The Caribbean: Cu-Bop n 1940 s: Cuban instruments and instrumentalists were strongly affecting jazz n n Another dance, the conga, a line or chain dance Cu-bop merges Latin rhythms with bebop n Introduced by Dizzie Gillespie in a 1947 bebop concert n From then on, Gillespie, Duke Ellington, Stan Kenton, and other musicians flavored much of their music with Brazilian, Cuban, Latin influences © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 16

The Importance of Rhythm n Rhythmic patterns are at the heart of Cuban (and African) drumming n Over a constant pulse other pulses are layered, then varied n n Creating rhythmic expectation through repetition, then subverting it This is what a jazz soloist does § Jazz musicians adapted such techniques § Stan Kenton’s band used the Latin effect double-timing which subdivides the beat, implying a faster tempo © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 17

The Caribbean: Mambo n An Afro-Cuban form of big band dance music n Tito Puente (1923 -2000)—born in New York City to Puerto Rican parents—became known as the “Mambo King” for his sophisticated versions of this Latin dance n n Puente was a percussionist and bandleader of Afro-Cuban music, influenced by swing and Santeria Couples danced the mambo moving forward and back n The slower, simpler chachacha, popular in the 1950 s is closely related to or even a form of the mambo © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 18

The Mambo’s Influence n Merged with big band jazz n Inspired many Tin Pan Alley songs recorded by… n Perry Como, Nat “King” Cole, more n The mambo affected 1950 s rhythm and blues n Introduced Latin rhythms into early rock § Bo Diddley, Ray Charles, James Brown absorbed Latin percussion sounds and rhythms into their own music © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 19

The Caribbean: Salsa n Late 1970 s: Salsa emerged with new status n Salsa = sauce (literal translation)—was a term for peppy sounds n Today salsa sometimes refers to all African-Latin musics § Salsa had been dance band music with instrumentation, rhythms, flavor unlike swing band sound § Timbres: Voices, trumpets; or, flutes and violins § Rhythms: Complex; varied Puerto Rican, South American elements § Salsa had been a Cuban music considered a substyle of popular music for decades © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 20

Salsa n Sophisticated jazz musicians enthusiastically incorporated salsa rhythms into their virtuosic performances n 1980 s and 1990 s n n Salsa in New York changed, acquiring a distinct African. American inflection The match of young freestyle singers with classic salsa rhythms has proved powerful, as revealed by brisk sales of recordings by salsa artists n Marc Anthony and India (Lindabel Caballero) © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 21

Listening Example 50 Ojos (“Eyes, ” 1978) Composed by Willie Colón Performed by Rubén Blades (vocal) Willie Colón (trombone) Listening guide page 214 This performance exemplifies how salsa musicians absorb varied influences and apply them to this Cuban style Notice how the brass instruments sound like those of big band jazz Canto After a brass introduction, the first section, like the verse of a Tin Pan Alley song, presents the song’s narrative content Montuno The second section alternates instrumental and vocal performances, increasing intensity and rhythmic complexity Rhythm: Clave rhythm Instrumentation: Brass with trombone on lead lines; percussion, including conga drum, timbales, bongos, maracas, claves, piano repeats syncopated patterns Form: Two-part Canto (narrative) and montuno (rhythmic, more instrumental) © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 22

Brazil n The relaxed, easy pace of Brazilian music can be related to the sounds and inflections of the Portuguese language spoken in Brazilian dances—gentler, slower, less intense that the exciting Cuban and Puerto Rican musics —achieved their own popularity in the United States n But never to the degree of the hot Caribbean sounds © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 23

Brazil: Samba and Bossa Nova n 1949: The Afro-Brazilian samba, sometimes called the national dance of Brazil, arrived in New York n n The word samba has religious connotations n n Became popular as sung and danced by the glamorous Carmen Miranda Samba has been the main dance at Rio’s Carnival, before Lent 1960 s: Bossa Nova emerged as middle and upper class youth’s reaction against samba’s perceived commercialism n Sometimes called jazz samba, it is derived from samba n Bossa Nova used elements of cool and progressive jazz with sophisticated Brazilian rhythms © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 24

Bossa Nova n Less vibrant, more melancholy than Cuban-flavored music n n Bossa nova adapted beautifully to the world of jazz n Flexible rhythms, colorful instrumentation Bossa nova met initial resistance from traditionalists n n They did not understand its elusive flavors, new sounds And, like bebop, bossa nova is for listening n Bossa nova is not a dance, but a rhythm--with subtle, flexible polyrhythms § Samba had exotic stars singing, dancing, flashy band § Bossa nova—Soft singing, single guitar, at most a fourman band © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 25

Bossa Nova: Antônio Carlos Jobim (1927 -1994) n A leading figure of the bossa nova movement n n The term bossa nova first emerged in the lyrics of the song “Desafinado, ” by Jobim n Bossa = slang for something particularly distinctive n Nova = new n “Desafinado” = off key—The lyrics say that by singing “off key” the singer tried to attract his beloved’s attention Early 1970 s: Rhythms and melodies of bossa nova were added to much music, including but not limited to… n Weather Report, with Brazilian percussionists; Brazilian singer of jazz and Brazilian music Flora Purim; Pat Metheny © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 26

Listening Example 51 Desafinado (“Off Key”) by Antônio Carlos Jobim Lyricist: Newton Mendonca Performers: João Gilberto (vocalist, guitarist) and Stan Getz (jazz tenor saxophonist) Listening guide page 217 If you say that I sing out of tune, love, I want you to know that this causes me great pain. Only the privileged have ears as good as yours. I only possess what God gave me. If you insist in classifying my behavior as antimusical I myself lying should argue that this is bossa nova, that this is very natural…. Meter: Four beats to the bar Tempo: Slow, relaxed Form: Strophic Gilberto’s calm voice is uniquely suited for the long, sinuous, chromatic melodic line; notice the harmonies to make the singer seem “off key. ” © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 27

Mexico n Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California absorbed many sounds from nearby Mexico… n Where folk music and popular music strongly reflect the songs and dances of African slaves n Country music of the Southwest shows the Mexican influence n Woody Guthrie, playing music in Texas in the 1920 s sometimes adapted Mexican topical ballads called corridos n Corrido = Storytelling song, with roots in Mexico and the southwestern and western United States n The Mexican ranchera (ranch song) “El Rancho Grande” became a standard of western swing bands © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 28

Mexico: Dances n Dances traveled back and forth between Spain and Mexico n Dances acquired changes in name, instrumentation, performance style over time n These dances became popular in the Southwest § Baile = traditional Spanish social dance popular in the Southwest before and after the Civil War, and, today § Bailes are performed to celebrate engagements, weddings, joyful events © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 29

Mexico: Tejano and Norteño Music n These are musical styles showing the influence of midnineteenth century immigrants from Germany, Poland, and what is now the Czech Republic n Accordion in popular bands n Oom-pah beat of polkas to Spanish songs and dances n Known as norteño in northern Mexico n Known as tejano in south Texas © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 30

Tejano Music n 1950 s: Tejanos were singing Tex-Mex rather than traditional Spanish n 1960 s and 1970 s: Orchestral sound infiltrated many tejano bands n 1980 s: Keyboards were included in the bands n 1995: Selena Quintanilla-Pérez was murdered n The murder of this shining young star brought tejano music to national attention n The music is now more familiar and popular as it evolves n Today’s tejano groups mix salsa, meringue, techno, pop; accordion still dominates some ensembles © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 31

Mexico: Conjunto n Conjunto = An ensemble accompanying dance and song in norteño music, north and south of the Mexico-Texas border n As Mexican Americans spread throughout the southwestern United States as well as north and east, conjunto ensembles played their traditional norteño music n n The ensembles included accordion, guitar, sometimes double bass, drums, later on sometimes saxophone They played polkas, waltzes, European dances popular in Mexico and the United States, and by the 1950 s rancheras, corridos, and traditional Mexican songs © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 32

Conjuntos: Recent Years n Some modern conjunto musicians have resisted the traditional polka songs n They have blended in other musical styles, including jazz, into performances n Besides saxophones, some have keyboards and synthesizers, creating conjuntos orquestales n Conjunto musicians have attracted enthusiastic new audiences to their música alegre (“happy music”) by… n Traveling widely n Teaming up with other musicians n Adding conjunto beat to other popular musics © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 33

Mexico: Mariachis n n Mariachis = Mexican groups of strolling musicians playing string instruments and often led by one or more trumpets Often perform in the southwestern United States n n By 1970 s, folk, country, and rock rhythms and instrumentation reflected Mexican music, including mariachis The music is joyous, often played at weddings n Strolling mariachis entertain passersby “Mariachi” may be derived from mariage, French for “marriage” © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 34

Latin Music Today n Latin music has become a vital force in the music of the United States n n Santana, Gloria Estefan, Ricky Martin, Jennifer Lopez, Christina Aguilera, Shakira 2000: The National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences created a new Latin branch which presented the first Latin Grammy Awards that year n Latin Grammy Awards categories include n Pop, rock, tropical, regional, traditional, jazz, Brazilian, children’s, classical, production, video © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 35

Part 3 Summary: The Rise of Popular Culture n The form of Sousa’s marches—a series of melodic strains— was also the form of ragtime, which was n n A written piano music combining black rhythmic effects with European harmony and form n Syncopated melodies in the right hand accompanied by a simple duple left hand pattern By World War I, rags were published by Tin Pan Alley n Many Tin Pan Alley songs had the spirit of ragtime n The great popular songwriters wrote for Tin Pan Alley and for Broadway musicals § Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, George Gershwin © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Summary 36

Part 3 Summary: The Jazz Age n Black musicians combined… n Forms, harmonies, timbres of white popular musics with… n Creole, Caribbean, black African rhythmic and melodic techniques § This hot new music for dancing was called jazz n Blues was n An early manifestation of jazz n Blues began as black folk song style, and evolved to… § A sophisticated, influential form of popular music n Boogie-woogie transferred the form and harmonic structure of blues to the piano © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Summary 37

Part 3 Summary: The Jazz Age n New Orleans nurtured the first important black combos n Soloists improvised on a given tune n Combo members backed them up n In Chicago later, white Dixieland bands imitated New Orleans jazz sound n White and black teens and young adults danced to early jazz n White middle-age people preferred sweet and symphonic jazz during the turbulent Depression years n Not true jazz, these genres introduced the art of the arranger § They paved the way for the 1930 s swing bands © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Summary 38

Part 3 Summary: Jazz 1930 -1960 n Mid-1930 s n n Jazz reached its peak of popularity, for about a decade Big bands played arrangements of blues and pop tunes n n Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie rebelled against the commercialism and popularity of big band swing n n n Harmonies more adventurous, pieces more structured than earlier jazz Established bebop, a music for listening—not dancing Bebop ushered in the age of modern jazz 1940 s n Singers replaced big bands in popularity © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Summary 39

Part 3 Summary: Jazz 1930 -1960 n Jazz musicians have formed alliances with the world of concert music, producing… n Symphonic works with jazzy flavors n Jazz pieces in classical forms n Third stream pieces in which jazz and classical music meet n Influential musicians in concert jazz… n Duke Ellington, Dave Brubeck, Charles Mingus n Additional modern jazz types include… n Progressive jazz, cool jazz, free jazz, fusion © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Summary 40

Part 3 Summary: Country Music n Rooted in rural and mountain folk traditions n Jimmie Rodgers popularized hillbilly songs n The Original Carter Family brought mountain music to the city n Recordings, radio shows spread this music Roping a Maverick painted by Olaf C. Seltzer (1877 -1957) Country musicians absorbed many influences as they moved to different states; soon new styles evolved. In Texas, Western swing and honky-tonk was popular. Cowboy songs from films joined the hillbilly repertoire to produce country-western music. Except for bluegrass, country music consists primarily of songs. © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Summary 41

Part 3 Summary: Latin Popular Musics n Latin dances invigorated the American pop music scene beginning in the 1930 s n Big bands popularized several dances from the Caribbean, Brazil, and Mexico n The tango, bomba, rumba, and other Latin dances soon became a seemingly inherent part of the North American popular experience n Brazil’s samba and bossa nova n Mexican mariachis became an inherent component of southwestern music © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Summary 42

Image credits: Slide 10: n Slide 11: n Slide 13: n Slide 34: n © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Guiro, Royalty-Free/Corbis Claves, ibid Bongo Drums, ibid Strolling Mariachis © Corbis Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Chapter 12: Latin Popular Musics 43

Image credits: n Slide 41: Roping a Maverick painted by Olaf C. Seltzer © 2010 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 3: The Growth of Vernacular Traditions Summary 44