Alexander the Great Alexanders Generals Plots on Alexanders

Alexander the Great Alexander’s Generals, Plots on Alexander’s life, Mutiny, Religion and Omens, Orientalism, Alexander and Homer.

Ptolemy was one of Alexander’s younger officers. He witnessed the campaigns of Alexander first hand wrote an account of them in later life. When Alexander’s empire broke up after his death, Ptolemy went back to Alexandria and became Pharaoh of Egypt. His dynasty survived until Roman times. Arrian draws on Ptolemy’s account of Alexander’s life and campaigns. He uses it in his narrative. He seems to find these writings very reliable: “Ptolemy, son of Lagus, gives a different account which I myself accept” (P. 274) Ptolemy does not feature prominently in Alexander’s early campaigns, he is rarely mentioned in early battles and sieges.

Ptolemy had a hand in the capture of Bessus, . It was Ptolemy who actually apprehended Bessus in a hideaway fort and presented him to Alexander. During the siege of the Rock of Aornos, Ptolemy led a group of infantry to an advanced position leading up to the rock and held it until Alexander reinforced him. As it turned out this assault proved futile. Alexander decided to conquer the rock by building a raised earthen work instead. Ptolemy also played a leading role in the capture of an Indian fort at Sangala. He was responsible for surrounding the fort and not allowing the defenders to escape.

Ptolemy Over all we can say that Ptolemy seems to have admired Alexander and wrote favourably about him, tending to brush over the kings worst vices. After Alexander’s death Ptolemy had the body of the king removed to Alexandria. He built a splendid tomb for his former king.

Parmenio was a senior general who served under Philip. He commanded the left cavalry wing. Parmenio was in charge of getting the Macedonian army across the Hellespont. He successfully completed this. At the Battle of Granicus, Parmenio advised Alexander to hold off an attack on the Persians. He felt that the Persians might withdraw from their position when they saw the numerically superior Greek infantry. Alexander rejected this. At the siege of Miletus Alexander rejected Parmenio’s advice to risk a naval confrontation with the Persians.

Parmenio also advised Alexander to carry out a surprise night attack on Darius’ forces at the battle of Gaugamela. Likewise Alexander rejected this and was indignant at the thought of “stealing” a victory in such a manner. At the battle of Gaugamela he struggled on the left flank. Alexander was forced to come over to help him. Plutarch indicates that Alexander was angry with him, because he was forced to give up his chase of Darius Parmenio advised Alexander to accept Darius’ peace terms after the battle of Issus. The old general considered these very generous. Once again Alexander refused to accept his judgement.

Parmenio When Parmenio was assassinated for the plot of his son, Philotas, there is no indication or proof that he was involved. Alexander seems to have feared Parmenio’s influence and reputation. Arrian is very unfair to Parmenio and gives him no credit what so ever. Parmenio followed orders, accepted Alexander's judgement and generally showed loyalty. Arrian seems to overlook the many positive traits he clearly had and demonstrated.

Hephaestion was Alexander’s friend from boyhood. The pair were extremely close. The historian Peter Green says that Hephaestion was “lumpish” i. e. useless. Hephaestion does not feature prominently in any of the major battles or early campaigns. There is no doubt the he was very loyal to Alexander. When Philotas was accused of arranging a plot to kill Alexander, Hephaestion was instrumental in his trial. He questioned Philotas about the plot and supported his execution. (Plutarch). Indeed Hephaestion benefited from Philotas’ fall. Alexander promoted him and he took over command of some of the former general’s units.

Hephaestion was given the responsibility of building a bridge across the Indus river, he seems to have accomplished this without difficulty. During the mass wedding at Susa, Alexander married Darius’ eldest daughter. Hephaestion married another daughter of Darius. According to Arrian, Alexander wanted to be a cousin to Hephaestion’s child. Generally, Hephaestion seems to have supported Alexander’s orientalism. He certainly shared Alexander’s fondness for booze and heavy partying. Hephaestion died after “falling ill”, a year before Alexander’s own death. Some accounts say that his doctor was “hung” for not stopping Hephaestion “heavy drinking. ”

Hephaestion Alexander’s reaction to his friend’s death demonstrates the intimacy between the two men. Alexander cut his hair, destroyed the shrine of Asclepius, ordered a tomb and shrines to be constructed for Hephaestion, paid a fortune for his friend’s funeral, personally led Hephaestion funeral carriage etc. Arrian says that there was a lot of “personal prejudice for or against both Hephaestion and Alexander”. Some of the early writers were not at all impressed with this relationship. Some considered the king’s behaviour, “discreditable and unfitting” for a potentate like Alexander. Plutarch does not have much to say about Hephaestion. He gives us a description of his death and Alexander’s reaction to it. He also notes that Hephaestion was “ordered” to follow a strict diet but broke this and consumed a “cooler full of wine”. He was partially responsible for his own death. Plutarch says Alexander’s reaction to this death was “uncontrollable”.

Plots on Alexander’s Life After the siege of Halicarnassus, Parmenio reported to Alexander that a Persian envoy, Sisines, was sent by Darius to persuade a man called Alexander, son of Aeropus to kill Alexander, king of Macedonia. The assassin was offered 1, 000 talents as well as the Kingship of Macedonia. Alexander son of Aeropus had been given command over the Thessalian cavalry. Parmenio apprehended him and the plot fell through. Alexander’s friends rebuked the king for giving so much responsibilities to a man who would later on consider treason against him. (Arrian) On another occasion Parmenio sent a letter to Alexander, saying that his doctor, Philip, was going to poison him. As Alexander was reading this letter, his doctor was giving him a beaker of medicine that he had just mixed. Alexander was suffering from an illness at the time. Alexander handed the letter over to his doctor and as the astonished physician was reading the letter, Alexander drank the potion he was given. Alexander did eventually recover and placed a great deal of trust in this doctor after that.

Plots on Alexander’s Life There was a plot to kill Alexander involving Philotas. A man called Dimnos wanted to kill Alexander. He asked Nichomachus to join in. This Nichomachus told his brother Cebalinus. Philotas was informed and was asked to bring the affair to Alexander’s attention. When he did not Cebalinus and Nichomachus went to Alexander themselves. Philotas was tortured and executed. However it in important to note that Philotas did not actually arrange the assassination himself. His merely failed to bring news of it to Alexander. The plot involving the page boys. Hermolaus a young page boy was punished by Alexander. He gathered around him a group of younger conspirators. Their intention was to murder Alexander as he slept. Part of the duties of these boys was to guard Alexander's tent as he slept. When Alexander heard about the plot, he had the boys tortured and executed. Callisthenes was also implicated and imprisoned/killed. Although he may have been completely innocent.

Plots on Alexander’s Life When Alexander died in Babylon, some suspected he was poisoned. There was the suspicion that Antipater sent the poison with his son Iolas or Cassander. This poison was made by Aristotle. Other say it was Medius who administered the poison, (it was at his party that Alexander began to feel feverish). Arrian and Plutarch tend to dismiss these theories.

Mutiny and Revolt Mutiny on the Hyphasis - After the battle on the Hydaspis, Alexander’s men refused to go further into India. They wanted to return home. Alexander tried to persuade them to remain by saying that they had only a little more territory to conquer. However general Coenus, speaking for the common soldier, told Alexander that the men wanted to go home. The had lost many comrades and were themselves battle weary. They wanted to see their wives and homelands again. Alexander should return to Macedonia and gather younger troops for further conquests. Alexander eventually gave in. He had no choice because he needed his Macedonian troops, officers and Companions. He could not go on without their support. Arrian says that this revolt was “Alexander’s only defeat”.

Mutiny and Revolt Mutiny at Opis – This mutiny centred around Alexander’s intention to send back to Greece, thousands of veteran soldiers. The Macedonians were furious at this insult. They felt that Alexander was degrading his own countrymen, in favour of the “barbarians”. They were also angry with Alexander for embracing Persian customs and promoting Persian officers into the higher ranks of his army. 13 ringleaders were executed and the Macedonians were informed that Alexander still considered them as his “kinsmen”. However this revolt had clearly failed. Alexander had now packed his regiments with loyal Persians. He also promoted them as officers. He did not have to rely so much on his Macedonian troops or officers. Also he was no longer far away in India in uncertain/hostile territory. He was safer by now than he had been in the previous revolt. This is why Alexander could react very differently this time.

Religion Alexander clearly respected the gods and was faithful to his religious duties. He was surrounded by soothsayers, observed omens and visited oracles. On the night Alexander was born, it is claimed that the temple of Artemis at Ephesus was destroyed. It was said that the goddess was too busy attending Alexander’s birth to save her temple. The Magi (priests) however thought the episode spelled doom for Asia. Before setting off for Asia, Alexander was told by Olympias that his father was Zeus, and that he was to live up to his noble birth. He believed that he was also related to Heracles, on his father’s side. As Alexander was crossing the Hellespont, on his way to Persia, he sacrificed a bull to Poseidon. When he a visited Troy, Alexander honoured the hero’s of the Trojan war, (Achilles) and visited the temple of Athena. He also held sacred games to honour these heroes. He prayed to King Priam, not to be avenged for the actions of Achilles.

Religion When Alexander visited Memphis in Egypt, he worshipped both the Greek and Egyptian Gods. We know Alexander performed sacrifices on the eve of battles and sieges. This was done to curry the Gods favour. Altars were set up an bulls slaughtered etc. When Alexander was at Tyre he asked to be admitted to the new city to honour Heracles. When he was refused, he was outraged. When he did eventually sack the city, Heracles was duly honoured. In Babylon, Alexander ordered the great temple of Bel to be restored. The priests were also granted their freedom to attend to the temple. Before Alexander returned to Asia from India, he built twelve altars to thank the gods for his success so far.

Omens Before Alexander set out for Persia he went to the oracle of Delphi, a priestess claimed (under duress) that he was “invincible”. When the statue of Orpheus was noticed to be moist, Alexander’s chief seer Aristander said that this was a good omen. Poets and musicians would sweat as they sang of Alexander’s greatness in the future. Before the siege of Miletus a bird rested on one of Alexander’s ships. Alexander decided that this was an omen that indicated that he would win the war in Asia on land not at sea. Before the siege of Gaza a bird appeared as Alexander was sacrificing for the success of his attack. Aristander proclaimed that Alexander would be injured but would capture the city. Both prophecies came true. When he went to Egypt Alexander visited the shrine of Zeus Ammon. Here he was told that he was the son of Ammon. This convinced Alexander that he had a special relationship with Zeus. Ammon.

Omens In the later years of Alexander’s life there was a number of signs and omens as he returned to Babylon from India. The examination of the lobless livers by Pythagoras, is a famous one. Alexander was informed that the absence of a lobe on the liver of the birds was not good news for him. The priests of Babylon sent word to Alexander not to enter the city. He ignored this. However on his way into the city, a bird fight taking place over head, startled him: especially when some of the birds began falling to the ground. Finally the is the story of stranger who sat on Alexander’s throne as he was playing with his friends nearby. This was seen as yet another ominous sign for the king.

Orientalism Alexander wore Persian clothes and robes He surrounded himself with Persian advisors. He wore the royal diadem and sat on the Persian royal throne. He insisted that his subjects prostrate themselves before him (as was done to former Persian kings). Peucestas, one of his generals, learned the Persian language and practiced Persian customs. Much to the disgust of his fellow Macedonians – but Alexander, naturally, approved of this. When Alexander held the mass wedding at Susa – the Persian wedding rite was performed. He also married Persian royal women. Alexander trained Persian youths, (the inheritors) in Macedonian style and had them armed in Macedonian battle gear.

Orientalism Alexander promoted Persians to the highest ranks in his army –a practice that alarmed his Macedonian comrades (Mutiny at Opis). Plutarch says that Alexander adopted this policy so as the Persians would accept Alexander as their king and not a conqueror. The Macedonian and Greeks were very disturbed by Alexander's changes in habits and customs. They felt that Alexander was living more like a barbarian and less like a Greek Callisthenes – Alexander’s biographer, he especially loathed the idea of prostration. Cleitus –mocked Alexander for having Persian sycophants around him Hermalous – the young conspirator declared, before he was executed, that he would rather died than live under Alexander's tyranny. He also saw Alexander as a despot, a notion more associated with a Persian ruler than a Greek liberator. The Mutiny at Opis – this revolt was particularly due to Alexander’s preference for Persians and the very high notion he had of himself as “son of Zeus Ammon”

Alexander and Homer had a huge influence on Alexander. “Once, men said, when a messenger arrived with news and could barely conceal his delight, Alexander stopped him with a smiled and said: ”What can you possibly tell me that deserves such excitement” he asked, “except perhaps that Homer has come back to life? ” (Robert Lane Fox, Alexander the Great , P. 67) Plutarch tells us that for Alexander, the Iliad was a handbook of the art of war and he took it with him on his campaigns. Indeed the text was annotated by his teacher, Aristotle. This became known as the “casket copy”. He kept this copy under his pillow along with a dagger P. 260 When Alexander arrived in Persia, at a place called Elaeus, he made offerings and sacrificed on the tomb of Protesilaus. This was the first man in Agamemnon’s army to set foot on Asia during the Trojan War. Alexander hoped to have better luck than Protesilaus, because this Greek also died when he landed on Persian soil.

Alexander and Homer When Alexander arrived in Persia he went to Troy and honoured the graves of Achilles and Patroclus. He poured libations on the graves and held sacred Athletic competitions on the site. Alexander went into the temple of Athena in Troy and exchanged the weapons hanging on the walls, from the Trojan war, with his own. A shield, taken from the temple of Athena at Troy, was reportedly used to save his life. In India when Alexander was injured in a campaign against the Mallians, the shield of Athena was used to protect him. At Troy Alexander prayed to Priam, (King of Troy). Alexander was related to Neoptolemus, (Achilles son). He did not want Priam to punish Alexander for his family connections to the man who destroyed Troy centuries earlier.

Alexander and Homer After the siege of Gaza, some sources say that Alexander placed thongs through the ankles of Batis, (the defeated leader of Gaza), fixed a rope around these thongs and tied this to his chariot. Then the body of Batis was dragged around the city of Gaza. This is a clear imitation of a scene from Homer’s Iliad, where Achilles dragged the body of Hector, whom he had just killed, around the walls of Troy. Before Alexander built the city of Alexandria in Egypt, he had a dream where an old man recited lines from Homer’s Odyssey. In his dream Alexander was directed to Pharos on the Nile. Near this site Alexander founded his new city.