Aim What are some strategies and barriers to

Aim: What are some strategies and barriers to solving problems? Do Now: • You have 4 minutes to see how many problems you can answer. Homework: • Read Text pps 530 - 532 AND 352 - 358 on language development • Test Wednesday Memory and Problem Solving

COGNITION • Process in which we acquire and use information (perception, memory and learning)

In order to think about the world, we form……. . Concepts • A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or people. • Mental groups of similar objects , events, ideas, people • Enables us to chunk large amounts of information Schemas These animals all look different, but they fall under our concept of “dogs”.

Concepts – Category Hierarchies • We organize concepts into broad mental categories of things based upon what do they have in common • We compare all new info to old info – determine where info goes

We base our concepts on …. Prototypes • A mental image or best (typical) example of a category. • If a new object is similar to our prototype, we are better able to recognize it. • Which bird is a prototypical bird?

How do we solve problems?

Trial and Error

Solving Problems Algorithm • a method/ rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula or other foolproof method Heuristic • A rule of thumb strategy that allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently Insight • A sudden and novel realization to the solution of a problem

Algorithms • A rule that guarantees the right solution to a problem. • Usually by using a formula. • They work but are sometimes impractical.

Heuristics Who would you trust to baby-sit your child? • A rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. A short cut (that can be prone to errors). • Who would you trust to baby sit your child? Your answer is based on your heuristic of their appearances.

Would the following require a Algorithm or Heuristic? 1. To unscramble Y S P L O C H Y G O 2. The Quadratic Formula 3. Competing from home on the Wheel of Fortune 4. Should I wear a rain jacket today? 5. Get through a maze.

Unscramble this word using a heuristic • euqne • Since q and u always go together, you put them together as a shortcut. Then you figure out the rest.

Insight • A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem. • No real strategy involved

Types of Heuristics (That often lead to errors)

Representativeness Heuristic • A rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototype. • Can cause us to ignore important information. Below is Linda. She loves books and hates loud noises. Is Linda a librarian or a beautician?

Representativeness Heuristic Harvard? • If I tell you that Sonia Dara is a Sports Illustrated swimsuit model, you would make certain quick judgments (heuristics) about her…like about her interests or intelligence. • She is an economics major at Harvard University. • Judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to the prototypes the person holds in their mind. • Like thinking everyone from Rye is preppy, or someone with glasses is nerdy, or a blonde is not smart.

Availability Heuristic Although diseases kill many more people than accidents, it has been shown that people will judge accidents and diseases to be equally fatal. This is because accidents are more dramatic and are often written up in the paper or seen on the news on TV. , and are more available in memory than diseases. • Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory. • If it comes to mind easily (maybe a vivid event) we presume it is common.

Tornadoes People over-estimate the likelihood of getting killed by a tornado because of the availability heuristic.

What are some obstacles to problem solving?

Functional Fixedness • The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions. What are some things I can do with this quarter (other than spend it)?

Divergent thinking, Convergent thinking • Divergent thinking is thinking outside the box. It means you are creative in coming up with solutions nobody else came up with. (shocks to build muscle) • Convergent thinking is more conforming but just as good. Sometimes the standard way is the best. (lifting weights to build muscle)

BARRIERS TO PROBLEM SOLVING? Functional Fixedness • tendency to fall into established thought patterns and approach problem in the same way or think or things in terms of their usual functions Final three letters of sequence… O -T-T-F-? ? ?

No functional fixedness!

This man has functional fixedness

Which of the following is a good example of functional fixedness? a) Failing to use a dime as a screwdriver when you have lost your screwdriver b) Not being able to solve a physics problem because you apply the same rule you always do c) Using a blanket as a pillow d) Adding water to a cake mix when it calls for milk

Overcoming Functional Fixedness • The "make this out of that" scene (called, "Apollo 13 (7/11) Movie CLIP - Square Peg in a Round Hole": http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=C 2 YZn. TL 596 Q) is actually a better example of two things. First : the need to break one's functional fixedness about exactly what an object is and what an object could be (also nicely stated in this clip from Apollo 13 called "Apollo 13 - Brainstorming": http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=5 t. S 9 a. Zh. B 9 cs) and second, instead of divergent thinking, this is a better example of convergent thinking because the ultimate goal here was to create a piece of equipment that would serve a specific purpose (not to think of as many uses as possible for an object).

Mental Sets • Tendency to approach a problem in one way • We use only what has worked in the past for us How could you arrange the 6 matches to form 4 equilateral triangles?

Match Problem Fixation • The inability to see a problem from a new perspective.

The Nine-Dot Problem . . Without lifting your pen from the page, can you connect all nine dots with only four lines?

Solution

Malcolm has been watching a roulette-type game at a local charity bazaar. The game has only ten numbers on the wheel, and every number except 8 has come up as a winner during the last 15 minutes. Malcolm decides to bet $10 on number 8, because it has to come up eventually. In this case, Malcolm is showing evidence of a. the conjunction fallacy b. the availability heuristic c. the base rate fallacy d. the gambler's fallacy

Framing • the way an issue or question is posed which can significantly affect/bias decisions or judgment. • Example: • A surgeon bragging about a 98% survival rate or 2% death rate • Ground beef 20% fat or 80% lean • Imagine you are a juror listening to a lawyer examine a witness. What’s the difference between these two questions? : (1) “Did you see a knife in his hand? ” and (2) “ Did you see the knife in his hand? ”

Confirmation Bias • A tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions. For example, if you believe that during a full moon there is an increase in admissions to the emergency room where you work, you will take notice of admissions during a full moon, but be inattentive to the moon when admissions occur during other nights of the month.

Confirmation Bias • Tendency to look for or pay attention only to info that confirms our beliefs Seinfeld Example http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=2 GMZjk. NW 5 b 8&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode=1&s afe=active

Hindsight Bias • the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all along phenomenon. ) • “I knew it all along”.

Overconfidence • The tendency to be more confident than correct. • To overestimate the accuracy of your beliefs and judgments. Considering “overconfidence” do you want to risk 1 million dollars on an audience poll?

Cognitive Dissonance Theory • uncomfortable feeling caused by holding two contradictory beliefs or performing an action contradictory to our beliefs • when they are our attitudes and behaviors are not consistent we experience dissonance (unpleasant tension). • Usually they can either: 1. Change our behavior. 2. Justify our behavior by changing the conflicting cognition. 3. Justify our behavior by adding new cognitions. You have a belief that cheating on tests is bad. But you cheat on a test!!! The teacher was really bad so in that class it is OK.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Belief Perseverance • Clinging to your initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. All Cowboys fans who still believe that this is their year are suffering from belief perseverance.

Belief Bias 1. Democrats support free speech 2. Dictators are not Democrats. 3. Republicans are not Democrats. Conclusion: Republicans do not support free speech. • The tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning. • Sometimes making invalid conclusions valid or vice versa.

15. Rose is to flower as : a) b) c) d) Concept is to prototype Prototype is to concept Concept is to hierarchy Hierarchy is to concept

Because it has all the features commonly associated with the concept bird, a robin is considered a(n): a) prototype b) heuristic c) algorithm d) phenotype

Tyrone is trying to solve a complex anagram puzzle. He systematically tries every potential solution by testing each possible combination of the letters provided. In this case, Tyrone is a. using an algorithm to solve the anagram b. working backward to solve the anagram c. using means-ends analysis to solve the anagram d. using a heuristic to solve the anagram

2. A heuristic is: A. a flash of insight B. guiding principle or rule of thumb used in problem solving C. a methodical procedure for trying all possible solutions to a problem. D. a way of making a compensatory decision.

Paco is 6 feet 6 inches tall, weighs 210 pounds and is very muscular. If you think that Paco is more likely to be a basketball player than a computer programmer, you are a victim of a. b. c. d. e. Belief bias The availability heuristic Mental set Functional fixedness The representative heuristic

Airline reservations typically decline after a highly publicized airplane crash because people overestimate the incidence of such disasters. In such instances, people’s decisions are being influenced by a. b. c. d. Belief bias The availability heuristic The representativeness heuristic Functional fixedness

Compared to convergent thinkers, to solve a problem divergent thinkers are more likely to: a) Process information to arrive at the single best answer b) Think creatively and generate multiple answers c) Problem solve in a systematic step-by-step fashion d) Frequently suffer from functional fixedness

Having been told that Terry is an engineer and Alex is an elementary school teacher, when Arnold meets the couple for the first time, he assumes that Terry is the husband Alex is the wife, rather than the opposite, which is the case. This best illustrates: a) Confirmation bias b) The mere exposure effect c) The anchoring effect d) The representativeness heuristic

Shanequa used to enjoy eating beef, but since she has seen all the headlines about people becoming ill from eating beef she has decided she will never eat beef again. In this case, Shanequa decision to stop beef may have been influenced by a. the overconfidence effect b. the availability heuristic c. the representativeness heuristic d. the conjunction fallacy

Corey was serving on a jury in a criminal case, and the jury reached a unanimous “not guilty” verdict. Several months later, some additional evidence came to light that strongly suggested that the defendant was, in fact, guilty of the crime in question. Corey is still not convinced by the new evidence, and claims he wouldn’t have voted guilty, even if the new information had been presented during the trial. In this example, Corey is showing evidence of a) The conjunction fallacy b) The availability heuristic c) Belief perseverance d) Mental set

Overconfidence • The tendency to be more confident than correct. • To overestimate the accuracy of your beliefs and judgments. Considering “overconfidence” do you want to risk 1 million dollars on an audience poll?

1. The belief that the probability of heads is higher after a long string of tails: A. is rational and accurate B. is an example of “gambler’s fallacy” C. reflects the influence of the representatives heuristic. D. b and c

2. A heuristic is: A. a flash of insight B. guiding principle or rule of thumb used in problem solving C. a methodical procedure for trying all possible solutions to a problem. D. a way of making a compensatory decision.

3. The more confident you are about your predictions of upcoming events in your life: A. the more likely it is that your predictions are accurate B. the less likely it is that your predictions are overconfident C. the more likely it is that your predictions are overconfident D. a and b

REASONING DEDUCTIVE • Form of reasoning where a conclusion is necessary • Follow from certain premises • If premises are true, then it must be true INDUCTIVE • the conclusion probably follows from certain premises but could be false

REASONING FORMAL • One best answer • Clear cut method to solve problem • Algorithms used • INFORMAL • Could have several answers • no clear solution • Many approaches or viewpoints are available • Often unclear if solution is good • Heuristics used

Crash Course Psychology # 14 Memory • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=HVWbr. N ls. Kw&index=14&list=PL 8 d. Puua. Lj. Xt. OPRKz. VLY 0 j. J Y-u. HOH 9 KVU 6

What cognitive failures are in this scene? • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=m. K 5 Gf 2 CS 6 u 8

WHERE GOOD IDEAS COME FROM by Steven Johnson • http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Nug. RZGD b. PFU&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mo de=1&safe=active