Acrylamide Contamination in Water and an Assessment of

Acrylamide: Contamination in Water and an Assessment of Regulations. Jasmeet Kaur, Laura Smolyar and Antonio F. Machado Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, California State University, Northridge. Abstract Introduction PAMs are used predominantly in water treatment plants as a flocculant but has other uses in plastics, paper, cosmetics, mineral processing. Acrylamide leaches into aquatic and drinking water via degradation of PAMs that are used in various industries. Acrylamide is also generated during preparation of food with large starch content and high temperature cooking. Surprisingly, concentrations of acrylamide around quarries is smaller than in environment. State of California department of Environmental Protection Agency (Cal/EPA) right to know act, Proposition 65 regulates that a warning be posted to inform the public potentially hazardous substances, but in relation to water EPA had set MCGL to 0, and MCL=TT (Treatment technique). There had been risk assessment studies done, and estimated that risk of developing cancer is 6 out of 10, 000 with the current exposures of 0. 43 micrograms per a kilogram of body weight. Acrylamide undergoes phase 1 and phase 2 metabolism in mammalian subjects. Exposure routes consist mostly of ingestion, transdermal and inhalation, however the drinking water would fall under oral administration. Acrylamide distribution in the body depends on its route of entry, but it is metabolized by hepatocytes in the liver and is excreted in original and various metabolite forms mostly via urine. Health effects include: nervous system, neurotoxic, carcinogenicity, reproductive and endocrine system disrupting effects. Acrylamide does not only impact mammals but also aquatic populations, studies show necrotic effects on tissues and DNA damage to fish and mussels that were exposed to acrylamide. There are various remediation strategies in the soil that involve microbial organism degradation of acrylamide, which had proved to be very efficient. There is also water treatment strategies involving carbon treatments, filtration, coagulation and chlorine additions. Industrial Production and Uses Metabolism Acrylamide is a monomer that is used to generate polyacrylamides (PAMs) via a polymerization reaction. Application of PAMs as a flocculant is widespread in the industry of waste water treatment, which resulted in making waste water treatment the largest contribution of acrylamide into the environment and drinking water contamination. Acrylamide is hydrophilic and water soluble molecule with properties that allow it to leach into the aquatic systems and drinking waters. Acrylamide is currently classified as a Group B 2, probable human carcinogen by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), but is also known to have adverse effects on nervous system for both humans and animals. Awareness and knowledge of everyday exposures to acrylamide through: drinking water, foods, cosmetics and smoking is a cornerstone in future remediation, policy re‐evaluations, and lowering pollution strategies. Acrylamide metabolism inside a mammalian body takes a few routes: • Acrylamide undergoes conjugation reaction with glutathione, and produces mercapturic acid as a product. • Acrylamide also undergoes epoxidation reaction with Cyp 4502 E 1, and produces glycidamide. • Glycidamide molecule has three possible routes. • Glycidamide • Glycidamide undergoes • Glycemide conjugation reaction with can be molecules that glutathione and produces metabolized have not been mercapturic acid. by epoxide metabolized Mercapturic acid produces hydrolase, stay free and two metabolites: creating unchanged. glyceramide. Glycidamide is 1. N‐Acetyl‐S‐(2‐hydroxy‐ 2‐ considered to carbamoylethyl) cysteine. be genotoxic. Uses of Acrylamide by Industry in Percentages. Acrylamide is widely used as a building block of PAMs (polyacrylamides) and acrylamide copolymers. Acrylamide copolymers and PAMs are used in many industrial processes such as; wastewaters treatment, paper mills, plastics, dyes, ore processing, and irrigation of water to improve soil texture (L. Brown et al. 1982), (EU 2000). PAMs are also used in consumer products such as; caulking, food packaging and processing, manufacturing of adhesives, pesticide formulations and cosmetic additives (D. Wood et al. 2004). Polyacrylamide is largely used as a flocculator in water treatment facilities, ore processing processes and paper mill industries. PAMs are also widely used in genetic engineering and molecular biology laboratories as a matrix which is utilized to separate nucleic acid components during analysis of DNA sequence (Taeymans et al. 2010). Water Treatment Pulp and Paper Misc. 2. Cysteine and N‐Acetyl‐S‐(1‐ carbamoyl‐ 2‐hydroxyethyl) Cysteine. Oil Drilling Mineral Processing Figure 1. Metabolism of acrylamide. (Virk‐Baker et al. 2014) Running feed. Distribution/Excretion Table 1. Use of Acrylamide by industry in percentages directly from the monograph: acrylamide. (IARC 1985‐ 1986) Pie chart displaying usages of acrylamide from year 1991 in Table 1. (E. Dybinga et. Al 2005). Routes of exposure Acrylamide Production in Food Acrylamide is most commonly formed in carbohydrate rich foods which are heated during preparation to or above 120˚C (C. Gertz et al. 2002), (P. Rydberg et al. 2003). Acrylamide is formed as a by‐product of Mailllard browning reaction, the reaction is described in Figure 6 (R. Stadler et al. 2002), (Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2008), (D. Mottram et al. 2002), (F. Perdreschi et al. 2013). Figure 6. Acrylamide formation in food. (Mestdagh et al. 2008) Every six people in out of ten thousand are expected to develop cancer as a result of ingesting acrylamide containing products. (E. Dybinga et al. 2005) Formation of acrylamide begins with reaction of carbonyl compound amino acid asparagine which results in N‐glycosyl conjugation and formation of decarboxylated Schiff base. After decarboxylation, the Schiff base might decompose into acrylamide and an imine or the reaction might be followed by hydrolysis to aminopropionamide and carbonyl compounds (R. Stadler et al. 2002), (Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2008), (D. Mottram et al. 2002), (F. Perdreschi et al. 2013). Cooking methods such as; frying, baking, broiling and roasting are likely to produce acrylamide whereas; boiling and steaming of the foods are less likely to produce acrylamide. Cooking at high temperatures catalyse a chemical reaction between reducing sugars and amino acids in the food which results in the formation of acrylamide. Acrylamide is most commonly found in; Potato Chips, French Fries, Roasted Coffee, Cereal Products, Breads and Bakery Products, Dried Foods, Chocolate Products (K. Skog et al. 2008), (E. Tareke et al. 2002) According to U. S. FDA, there are no guidelines which govern the presence of acrylamide in food but residual amount of acrylamide is regulated in number of food materials (A. Kita et al. 2004), (H. Mojska et al. 2007). Figure 3. Distribution and toxicokinetics of acrylamide in a mammal. Concepts of PBTK compartment model developed by Kirman et. al. had been applied in creation of Figure 3, which represents distribution of acrylamide in a body with the emphasis to ingestion route of administration. Figure 2. Acrylamide exposure routes and average daily exposure dose. (E. Dybinga et al. 2005) Health Effects • Nervous system effects: Negative effects on the nervous system are not generally noticeable in a large population exposed to lower doses of acrylamide. Study of • Acrylamide distribution in the body circulates compartments workers exposed to acrylamide via inhalation found that 71% §PAMs (polyacrylamide) are expected to be highly mobile and biodegradable in soil and water. Residual monomer of acrylamide releases to the soil and lands during industrial depending on the exposure route. Ingested acrylamide travels experienced numbness in extremities and fatigue, 68% experienced production of dyes, plastics and grouting agents which might be in wells. Use of PAMs results in small amounts of the PAMs that escapes into the environment, but is unlikely into the stomach, then into liver. Liver cells hepatocytes that it will degrade to acrylamide. Residuals of acrylamide monomer mostly end up in the liquid‐water effluent. sweating of hands and feet, 59% skin peeling, 54% loss of pain §Commercially used PAM flocculants in treatment plants contain residual acrylamide monomer, when this residual monomer is released into the environment. Majority of metabolize acrylamide via pathways described in Fig. 1. sensations and 46% loss of touch sensations. Less than 50% of workers acrylamide that releases from industrial processes as a discharge, ends up in the water. Acrylamide is known to have high water solubility as a result it leaches into the Metabolite of acrylamide glycidamide, may get recirculated groundwater from the soils that are contaminated with toxic releases (S. Touze et al. 2014), (S. Lande et al. 1979). experienced dizziness, anorexia, loss of vibration sensation, nausea, §Most of acrylamide monomer when used in industrial processes like water treatment facilities ends up in the soil. After the treatment of raw water with the flocculant when back into the system. Intravenous blood carries compounds to loss of ankle reflexes, headaches, and unsteady gait (C. J Calleman the left over water from the treatment process stays in the sludges/soil around the treatment facilities. Many studies have shown that AMD (monomer of acrylamide) leaches the lungs, and lungs bring them back into arterial blood supply. into the soil and eventually can reach groundwater if proper care is not taken. 1994). Blood takes compounds into tissues and back into the liver. §Studies conducted by Lande et al, 1979 found that PAMs are mostly mobile in loamy fine sand least mobile in slit clay. §When PAMs are in water it can undergo either abiotic or biotic degradation. Number of studies showed that PAM will undergo biodegradation after an initial period of • In humans, half‐life of acrylamide in the plasma is short, Half‐ • Reproductive effects acclimation (S. Touze et al. 2014), (S. Lande et al. 1979). Study was conducted on mice affected by obesity and acrylamide. life of acrylamide in rodents ranges from 1‐ 4 hours (Sumner et Fig 5. represents a diagram of a typical wastewater treatment facility where polyacrylamides are used to treat waste water. There a few points in a system where polyacrylamides can be injected, depending on al. 1992). In a study conducted on human population exposed Obesity had reduced fertility of male mice, but even further the set up of facility. The system presented in the study by Touze et al, injects polyacrylamides at the potentiated acrylamide induced toxicity that lead to even greater to acrylamide, biomarkers are used to determine exposures. flocculant injection unit, marked in the diagram as P 3. Urinary excretion of acrylamide metabolites had been noted. infertility, acrylamide effected both obese and lean males. Obese males displayed greater susceptibility to potentiation of acrylamide There is a positive significant correlation between the induced infertility than lean males. The relationship between diet metabolites located in the urine of exposed humans and the neurotoxicity index, as well as acrylamide hemoglobin adducts induced obesity and acrylamide toxicity was linked to decreased fertility, parameters as abnormal sperm morphology and low total to N‐terminal valine (C. J Calleman 1994). • Smokers were evaluated based on the urine and blood samples, sperm count (Ghanayem et al. 2010). • Cancer Figure 5. Water treatment facility/settling basins. (S. Touze et al 2014) vs the non‐smokers. Mercapturic acid (N‐acetyl‐S‐(2‐ Various cohort‐studies have been conducted on humans to evaluate carbamoylethyl)‐L‐cysteine, AAMA) increased by 2. 5 folds, metabolites of glycidamide (N‐(R/S)‐acetyl‐S‐(2‐carbamoyl‐ 2‐ acrylamide’s carcinogenic effects, and produced some inconclusive Acrylamide/polyacrylamide can be found two matrices: water and soil. During the treatment process, the treated water seeps into the soil surrounding the facility as a result. hydroxyethyl)‐L‐cysteine, GAMA) increase by 1. 7 folds, the N‐ data. A study about endometrial cancer (EC) concluded that there Residual of acrylamide can be found in soil. PAMs and acrylamide undergo microbial degradation in the sediment and soils around the water treatment quarries and settling basins. were no EC risk associated for women with dietary acrylamide intake, terminal valine adduct of acrylamide (N‐ 2‐ Example of such can be viewed in Fig 5, (Anne Togola 2014). §EU, 2000 risk assessment reports have indicated that photodegradation of acrylamide in surface waters has a half life of about 1 year. however an increased risk for EC was noted for women who were non‐ carbamoylethylvaline, AAVal) in blood increase by 3 fold in §Studies conducted by Lande et al, 1979 demonstrated that highest degradation of acrylamide occurs in soil when the soils have an alkaline p. H and high temperatures. smokers and were not treated with oral contraceptives. Human cancer smokers (Urban et al. 2008). Sediment around Sediment in Water around Water in risk assessments are still estimated, through a physiologically based quarries environment pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics (PBPK/PD) model. One such model had estimated risk to be 1‐ 4 in 10 thousand will be affected by <0. 02 to <0. 08 µg/g <10 µg/L 0. 41 to 5. 66 µg/L < 5 µg/L Carassius auratus (gold fish) manifested histopathological alternations in cancer, with the average daily consumption dose of acrylamide hepatopancreas from exposure to acrylamide. Fish were exposed to (Doerge et al. 2008). Studies show that there is a statistically significant acrylamide via their water containers that mimic acrylamide contaminated correlation between acrylamide exposure and rodent carcinogenicity. Table 2. Environmental levels (S. Touze et al 2014 ), (ATSRD 2012). aquatic conditions. Lethal Concentration at 50% (LD 50) occurred with the It is important to note that carcinogenicity of acrylamide in rodent concentration of 119. 5 mg/L, while a 100% mortality of fish occurred at 200 studies displayed affinity for reproductive system organs adverse mg/L. The exposed fish manifested DNA breakage, pancreatic cell necrosis effects. Acrylamide and it’s metabolite glycidamide are both EPA CAL/EPA European union Japan and diffuse intrusions of macrophages and considered to have mutagenic properties, however glycidamide is MCGL=0 MCL=TT 0. 0005 µg/L. chromosomal aberrations‐clastrogenesis 0. 10 µg/L. assumed to be a more potent carcinogen. MCL=TT (Larguinho et al. 2014). Marine organisms ‐ • Endocrine system disruption Mytilus galloprovincialis (mussels) resembled Endocrine system disruptions are disruptions in the hormone Table 3. Regulations of acrylamide. mammalian GST metabolic activities and regulations, caused by low doses of acrylamide. Thyroid gland effects (Treatment Technique (TT) is set instead of MCL for acrylamide because EPA was unable to find any reliable exhibited cell necrosis of gonads and oocyte of decreased in the colloid area and follicular area shrinkages were methods which were economically and technically feasible to measure acrylamide at low concentrations. TT is atresia (Larguinho et al. 2014). an enforceable procedure which is set by EPA under the Phase II rule, under the Safe Drinking noted in a study that exposed female mice to acrylamide (Khan et al. Water Act requires EPA to review the national primary drinking water regulation periodically. This rule limits 1999). Acrylamide doesn’t only have reproductive effects but it also the amount of acrylamide use to 0. 05% by weight and dosage for the water treatment facilities and requires influences reproductive organs that produce hormones and treatment facilities submit in writing that levels specified in phase II rule are not exceeded. Currently immunohistochemistry. Low body weight, organ weight and Treatment Technique Process acrylamide is being reviewed by the EPA during the Second Six Year Review of National Primary Drinking Water development, progesterone concentration in serum reducing effects 1. Pre-Disinfection: 6. Solids Removal: Solids 5. Filtration: After Regulations. New technology has been developed by the Swedish National Food Administration in 2002, to 3. Flocculation: Commonly used in newer that settle out of the water sedimentation, the had been noted in the study conducted on acrylamide‐treated female treat acrylamide called direct testing procedure. EPA has reviewed the procedure developed by Sweden but Gentle mixing plants. Mostly ozone is are removed to drying clarified water is mice (Wei et al. 2014). process to form used to remove TOC EPA is still determining if the cost associated with this procedure is technically reasonable (EPA 2009), (Brown L lagoons or sludge presses passed through Fate and Transport Levels in the Environmental Matrices Ecotoxicology/Ecology Regulations Remediation/Recommendations et al. 1980), (EPA 2014). EPA has determined that, “exposure to acrylamide in drinking water at concentrations of 1. 5 mg/L for one day or 0. 3 mg/L for 10 days is not expected to cause any adverse effects in a child. ” Whereas, polyacrylamide concentrations near water treatment facilities must be less than 0. 08 µg/g. (Anne Togola 2014). Treatment technique is discussed in detail in remediation/recommendations section. References Mandeep K. Virk‐Baker, Tim R. Nagy, Stephen Barnes & John Groopman. 2014. Dietary Acrylamide and Human Cancer: A Systematic Review of Literature. 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(Total Organic Carbon) from raw water. larger and heavier particles. 2. Coagulation: The process of chemical addition to combine suspended solids and colloidal solids creating larger particles that can settle out and/or be filtered out. Chemicals commonly used for this process include aluminum sulfate (alum), ferric chloride, and synthetic polymers. After the addition a process called “flash mixing” occurs, in length of time of 30 to 60 seconds. Flash mixing process disperses the chemicals to mix with TSS (Total Suspended Solids). filters to remove particles of dirt, algae, and harmful bacteria and parasites. Filters can are usually made from sand, gravel or granular activated carbon. for dewatering. 7. Post. Disinfection: Chlorine and chlorine containing compounds are typically used for disinfection purposes to disable bacteria, viruses and parasites. 4. Sedimentation (Also Known as Clarification): The particles that are formed through coagulation and flocculation become increasingly larger and eventually settle out of the water (water. epa. gov) in large sedimentation basins. Doerge DR, Young JF, Chen JJ, Di. Novi MJ, Henry SH. 2008. Using dietary exposure and physiologically based pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic modeling in human risk extrapolations for acrylamide toxicity. Per Rydberg, Sune Eriksson, Eden Tareke, Patrik Karlsson, Lars Ehrenberg a, Margareta Törnqvist*. 2003. Investigations of factors that influence the acrylamide content of heated foodstuffs Kita A, Brathen E, Knutsen SH, Wicklund T. 2004. Effective ways of decreasing acrylamide content in potato crisps during processing. J Agric Food Chem 52: 7011‐ 7016. Sumner SC, Mac. Neela JP, Fennell TR. 1992. Characterization and quantitation of urinary metabolites of [1, 2, 3‐ 13 c]acrylamide in rats and mice using 13 c nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. 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Urinary mercapturic acids and a hemoglobin adduct for the dosimetry of acrylamide exposure in smokers and nonsmokers. Registry ATSRD. 2012. Toxicological profile for acrylamide. U. S. Department of health and human services. Wei Q, Li J, Li X, Zhang L, Shi F. 2014. Reproductive toxicity in acrylamide‐treated female mice. Reprod Toxicol 46: 121‐ 128. Khan MA, Davis CA, Foley GL, Friedman MA, Hansen LG. 1999. Changes in thyroid gland morphology after acute acrylamide exposure. Toxicol Sci 47: 151‐ 157. Liu ZH, Cao YM, Zhou QW, Guo K, Ge F, Hou JY, et al. 2013. Acrylamide biodegradation ability and plant growth‐promoting properties of variovorax boronicumulans cgmcc 4969. Biodegradation 24: 855‐ 864. Rahim MB, Syed MA, Shukor MY. 2012. Isolation and characterization of an acrylamide‐degrading yeast rhodotorula sp. Strain mbh 23 kctc 11960 bp. J Basic Microbiol 52: 573‐ 581. Larguinho M, Cordeiro A, Diniz MS, Costa PM, Baptista PV. 2014. Metabolic and histopathological alterations in the marine bivalve mytilus galloprovincialis induced by chronic exposure to acrylamide. Environ Res 135: 55‐ 62. IARC. 1985‐ 1986. Acrylamide. Monographs IARC, 1‐ 45. + (Anon 1985‐ 1991 Chemical profile: acrylamide. Chem. Mark Rep. , 227, 64 233, 46 239, 42) §PAMs degrade into monomers when effected by sunlight, however microbial remediation is more efficient at breaking down PAMs without leaving monomer residual. Acrylamide is hydrophilic and is hard to eliminate out of water by filtration. §Degradation of PAMs had been studied in: aeration, light, p. H, and sterilization. In a mineral salt medium a species of Variovorax boronicumulans CGMCC 4969 strain proved to degrade acrylamide, hydrolyzing it to acrylic acid with a half‐life of 2. 5 minutes. Escherichia coli strain Rosetta (DE 3) p. Lys. S also produced notable results by hydrolyzing acrylamide into acrylic acid. Not only was acrylamide degraded, but the metabolic byproducts produced during degradation promoted cell growth (Liu et al. 2013). §Example: Table 5. Concentrations of acrylamide around quarries is smaller than in the environment. Rhodotorula sp. Strain mbh 23 kctc 11960 bp was able to degrade a full dose of acrylamide in 5 days (Rahim et al. 2012). §Acrylamide is degraded into CO 2 and ammonium ions in water and soils. The bacterium found to metabolize acrylamide in aerobic conditions were Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Rhodococcus (Junqua et al. 2014). Some Recommendations for consumption of food and impact on environment are listed below: §Avoid consumption of fried foods, use alternative methods for cooking such as boiling and steaming. §Better techniques must be utilized at the industries which use acrylamide to reduce the impact on the environment. Conclusion It is important to acknowledge that in contrast to all the studies that have discovered and determined acrylamide toxic potentials, knowledge is still limited with regards to effects of acrylamide on a human population. One of the aspects that research can expand on is producing more risk assessment reports based human population, with regards to routes of exposure to acrylamide and comparison of effects on different age groups. Acrylamide is currently classified a possible human carcinogen, however the metabolite glycidamide is considered to have greater affinity towards mutagenesis. More research is needed to analyze glycidamide and the overall possible potentiation of cancer and hormone disrupting effects by acrylamide in combination with other mutagens.