Achaemenid Persian Empire and Alexander the Great sources

Achaemenid Persian Empire and Alexander the Great: sources Krzysztof Nawotka

Alexander the Great: overview Born: July 356, son of Philip II of Macedonia and Olympias King: October 336 Conquered the Persian Empire: 334 -327 Passage to India: 327 -325 Proclaimed god: 324 Died: 11 June 323

Empire of Alexander

Alexander between different worlds: • • • Macedonian Greek Persian Indian Egyptian Babylonian

Alexander: sources Sources (information from antiquity) and secondary literature (modern interpretation) Various categories: Written vs. Archaeological, iconographic, numismatic, topographic Literary vs. Documentary Classical (Greek and Latin) vs. Oriental Contemporary (primary) vs. Later (secondary)

Primary classical sources - literary Alexander’s companions: Ptolemy – bodyguard and king of Egypt Aristobulos – army engineer Onesicritus – helmsmen Nearchus – admiral Chares – chamberlain Callisthenes – court historian Cleitarchus – 4 th/3 rd c. author ALL GONE

Secondary classical sources - literary • • • - Much later than Alexander Written on the basis of primary sources Flavius Arrianus (Arrian): Roman consul and historian (c. 86 -140 AD) Works: Anabasis of Alexander (Ptolemy, Aristobulos, Cleitarchus), - Indica (Nearchus)

Secondary classical sources - literary • Vulgate authores – based mostly on Cleitarchus: • Diodorus of Sicily (1 st c. BC) • Q. Curtius Rufus (1 st c. AD) • Iunius Iustinus (Justin) (2 -4 th c. AD? ) – after Pompeius Trogus (1 st c. BC/1 st c. AD)

Secondary classical sources - literary • Plutarch (c. 50 -120 AD) – philosopher and erudite - Works: - Life of Alexander - On fortune or virtue of Alexander - Used dozens of primary sources • Military authors: Frontinus • Anecdotes: Lucian, Aelian

Literary sources • • Continuous narrative of events Interpretations Narrative of motives, thoughts, words Reconstruction of chain of events a. k. a. historical processes

Primary classical sources - documentary GONE: Ephemerides – King’s journal Bematists – army surveyors Accounts Alexander’s letters: to Olympias, to Antipater (viceroy in the Balkans), to Phocion (Athenian general and politician)

Primary classical sources - documentary EXTANT: Aristotle’s letter to Aristotle (in Arabic translation) Alleged diplomatic letters between Alexander and Darius Spurious last will of Alexander (Liber de morte testamentoque Alexandri Magni – LDM)

Primary classical sources - documentary • Greek inscriptions: - Alexander’s letters to Greek states, e. g. to Chios - Decrees of Greeks states bestowing honors on Macedonians - Sources to learn constitutional history

Primary Persian sources

Monumental Achaemenid inscriptions (DB 1: Bisitun) • • adam Dârayavauš xšâyathiya • vazraka xšâyathiy ânâm xšâyathiya Pârsaiy xšâyathiya dahyûnâm Višt âspahyâ puça Aršâmahyâ napâ Haxâmanišiya thâtiy Dârayavauš xšâyathiya manâ pitâ Vištâspahyâ pitâ Arš âma Aršâmahyâ pitâ Ariyâramnahyâ pitâ Cišpiš Cišp • âiš pitâ Haxâmaniš thâtiy Dârayavauš xšâthiya avahyarâ diy vayam Haxâmanišiyâ thahyâmahy hacâ paruviyata âmâtâ ama hy hacâ paruviyata hyâ amâxam taumâ xšâyathiyâ âha th 1) I am Darius, the great king, king of kings, the king of Persia, the king of countries, the son of Hystaspes, the grandson of Arsames, the Achaemenid. (2) King Darius says: My father is Hystaspes; the father of Hystaspes was Arsames; the father of Arsames was Ariaramnes; the father of Ariaramnes was Teispes; the father of Teispes was Achaemenes. (3) King Darius says: That is why we are called Achaemenids; from antiquity we have been noble; from antiquity has our dynasty been royal.

Primary Persian sources Persepolis tablets: PTT: 139 (492 -458) PFT: c. 30, 000 (6 th/5 th c. ) Clay, mostly Elamaite, also Aramaic and one Greek Accounts from central administration, e. g. : 130 liters of barley from the possessions of Amavrta have been received by Barîk-'El as his rations. Given in the town of Ithema, in the twenty-first year [of Darius] in the month Shibar [November/December 501]. [PFT 798]

Primary Persian sources Documents: - on parchemnet, papyrus, leather - found in Egypt, Bactria - Aramaic - Business letters written by officials, private documents (sales, marriage, divorce)

Persian archaeological sources: Cyrus’ tomb Pasargadae

Persian archaeological sources: Persepolis

Primary Babylonian sources • On clay tablets • Akkadian, cuneiform • Astronomical diaries: records of observation of sky every night, miscellaneous economic data (prices), religious and political history • Business documents, e. g. archive of Murašu of Nippur • Rare historical, e. g. : Alexander chronicle, Successors chronicle

Gaugamela in astronomical diary

Astronomical diaries • Extremely precise dates (Babylonian dates can precisely be ‘translated’ to ours): - Battle of Gaugamela: 1 October 331 - Surrounder of Babylon: 21 October 331 - Death of Alexander: 28 Daisios (Plutarch) = ? , diary: 29 Aiaru = 11 June 323

Alexander chronicle

Alexander chronicle • [MU. . . ITI ŠU? . . • Year 330? month IV? ina gišG]U. ZA-šú id-de-ku …… from] his [thr]one -šú mbi-/e-[es? -su? ], 4' they removed him. [šám. Ar-tak-šat-su (? )] MU Be[ssos? ], [whom -šú MU-’u u m{DIŠ (over Artaxerxes? ] as his name erasure)}a-lik-sa u ERÍNthey named, ? ][and [MEŠ-šú]' [. . Alexa(nder) and his ERÍN]-MEŠ-šú i-u-tu TA troops' [. . . . lúERÍN. ME[Š. . ]6' [. . . . with] his few [troop]s from x x i]d-duk lúERÍN ha-ni-e the troops [. . . (. . . )]6' he lúERÍN. MEŠ-šú š[á. . killed/defeated. The . . ][(. . . ). . . . ]7' [. . . Hanaean troops, his . . ] AN /RA? [. . ] m/da-ri-ia troops wh[ich. . . ]7' [. . . -a-muš LUGAL GIN . . ] from] /Babylon? [to? ] [MEŠ? ] Darius, the king, went.

Oriental religious sources • Representing politics and history in religious terms • Prophecies ex post, e. g. Dynastic Prophecy written after Gaugamela • Alexander in Zoroastrian literature: guzastag (like Ahriman), leader of demons from the land of wrath

Sources: fundamental problems • No significant contemporary literary sources – hence image of Alexander filtered through preceptions of later generations • Lack of significant oriental sources: onesided view (Greek, western)