Abnormal Child Psychology Sixth Edition 1 Introduction to

Abnormal Child Psychology Sixth Edition 1 Introduction to Normal and Abnormal Behavior in Children and Adolescents Eric J. Mash A. Wolfe ©David Cengage Learning 2016 © Cengage Learning 2016

Introduction • Research studies in abnormal child psychology seek to: – Define normal and abnormal behavior for children of different ages, sexes, and ethnic and cultural backgrounds – Identify the cases and correlates of abnormal behavior – Make predictions about long-term outcomes – Develop and evaluate methods for treatment and/or prevention © Cengage Learning 2016

Features That Distinguish Child and Adolescent Disorders • When adults seek services for children, it is not often clear who has what “problem” • Many child and adolescent problems – Involve a failure to show expected developmental progress – Are not entirely abnormal • Interventions are often intended to promote further development © Cengage Learning 2016

Historical Views and Breakthroughs • Ancient Greek/Roman view – The disabled were a burden - scorned, abandoned, or put to death • Before the 18 th century – Children were subjected to harsh treatment and largely ignored • By end of 18 th century – Interest in abnormal child behavior surfaced © Cengage Learning 2016

The Emergence of Social Conscience – Locke and Itard • John Locke (17 th century) – Believed children should be raised with thought and care, not indifference and harsh treatment • Jean-Marc Itard (19 th century) – Focused on the care, treatment, and training of “mental defectives” © Cengage Learning 2016

The Emergence of Social Conscience – Hollingworth and Rush • Leta Hollingworth – Distinguished individuals with mental retardation (“imbeciles”) from those with psychiatric disorders (“lunatics”) • Benjamin Rush – Claimed that children were incapable of adultlike insanity • Children with normal cognitive abilities but disturbing behavior suffer from “moral insanity” © Cengage Learning 2016

Early Biological Attributes • Late 19 th century: mental illnesses were viewed as biological problems – This was thwarted by the prevailing bias that the individual was at fault for deviant or abnormal behavior • Clifford Beers’ efforts led to detection and intervention © Cengage Learning 2016

Early Biological Attributes – Eugenics and Sterilization • Early 20 th century: society reverted to a belief that disorders could not be influenced by treatment or learning – There was a return to custodial care and punishment of behaviors • Mental disorders viewed as “diseases” led to fear of contamination – Eugenics (sterilization) and segregation (institutionalization) were implemented © Cengage Learning 2016

Early Psychological Attributes – Psychoanalytic Theory • Linked mental disorders to childhood experiences and surroundings – Focused on the interaction of developmental and situational processes • Purported that mental disorders can be helped with proper environment or therapy • Retains a role as a model for abnormal child psychology © Cengage Learning 2016

Early Psychological Attributes – Behaviorism • Laid the foundation for evidence-based treatments • Key studies – Pavlov’s research on classical conditioning – Watson’s studies on the elimination of children’s fears and theory of emotions • Famous study: Little Albert © Cengage Learning 2016

Evolving Forms of Treatment – Psychodynamic Approaches • 1930 to 1950: psychodynamic approaches prevailed – Most children with intellectual or mental disorders were institutionalized • Late 1940 s: Spitz’ studies pointed out the harmful impact of institutional life • 1945 to 1965: institutionalization decreased – Placement in foster care and group homes increased © Cengage Learning 2016

Evolving Forms of Treatment – Behavioral Approaches • 1950 s and early 1960 s: behavior therapy emerged as a systematic approach to treatment of child and family disorders • Behavior therapy is a prominent form of therapy © Cengage Learning 2016

Progressive Legislation – IDEA • IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) requires: – Free and appropriate public education for children with special needs in the least restrictive environment – Each child must be assessed with culturally appropriate tests – An individualized education program (IEP) for each child © Cengage Learning 2016

Progressive Legislation – The UN • United Nations General Assembly (2007) adopted a new convention to protect the rights of persons with disabilities – The convention supports the attitude of considering persons with disabilities as individuals with human rights © Cengage Learning 2016

What Is Abnormal Behavior in Children and Adolescents? • Childhood disorders are accompanied by various layers of abnormal behavior or development • Must also be sensitive to each child’s stage of development • Disorders are commonly viewed as deviancies from normal – Boundaries between normal and abnormal functioning are arbitrary © Cengage Learning 2016

Defining Psychological Disorders • Patterns of behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or physical symptoms linked with one or more of the following: – Distress – Disability – Increased risk for further suffering or harm • Culture and circumstances matter • The characteristics describes behaviors, not causes © Cengage Learning 2016

Labels Describe Behavior, Not People • Stigmatization is a challenge – Separate the child from the disorder – Problems may be the result of children’s attempts to adapt to abnormal or unusual circumstances • According to DSM-5 guidelines – The primary purpose of using terms is to help describe and organize complex features of behavior patterns © Cengage Learning 2016

Competence • The ability to successfully adapt in the environment – Successful adaptation is influenced by culture and ethnicity • Abnormal child psychology considers: – The degree of maladaptive behavior – The extent to which normal developmental milestones are met • Knowledge of developmental tasks provides important background information © Cengage Learning 2016

Examples of Development Tasks © Cengage Learning 2016

Developmental Pathways • The sequence and timing of particular behaviors as well as the relationships between behaviors over time • Two types of developmental pathways – Multifinality - various outcomes may stem from similar beginnings – Equifinality - similar outcomes stem from different early experiences and developmental pathways © Cengage Learning 2016

Multifinality and Equifinality © Cengage Learning 2016

Key Considerations in Developmental Pathways • There are many contributors to disordered outcomes in each child • Contributors vary among children who have the same disorder • Children express features of their disturbances in different ways • Pathways leading to particular disorders are numerous and interactive © Cengage Learning 2016

Risk Factors and Protective Factors • Risk factor: a variable that precedes a negative outcome of interest – Examples: chronic poverty, care-giving deficits, parental mental illness, death of a parent, disasters, and family breakup • Protective factor: a personal or situational variables that mitigates a child developing a disorder © Cengage Learning 2016

Resilience • The ability to fight off or recover from misfortune – Associated with strong self-confidence, coping skills, avoiding risk situations – Connected to a “protective triad” of resources: • Strength of the child • Strength of the family • Strength of the school/community © Cengage Learning 2016

Characteristics of Those Who Display Resilience © Cengage Learning 2016

The Significance of Mental Health Problems Among Children and Youth • One in eight children has a mental health problem (North American studies) – Many others are at risk for later development of a psychological disorder • The majority of children needing mental health services do not receive them • The demand for children’s mental health services is expected to double over the next decade © Cengage Learning 2016

The Changing Picture of Children’s Mental Health • A better ability to distinguish among disorders has led to increased and earlier recognition of problems • There is a greater awareness of younger children’s and teens’ unique mental health issues • Evidence-based prevention and treatment programs are more prominent © Cengage Learning 2016

Prevalence of Mental Health Issues • Mental health problems are more likely in children: – From disadvantaged families – From abusive or neglectful families – Receiving inadequate child care – Born with very low birth weight – Whose parents have a mental illness or substance abuse problems © Cengage Learning 2016

What Affects Rates and Expression of Mental Disorders? • New pressures and social changes may place children at increased risk for development of disorder • Environmental stressors may: – Act as nonspecific stressors - bring about poor adaptation or the onset of a disorder – Affect the extent to which a child’s problems are attenuated or exacerbated © Cengage Learning 2016

Poverty • One in five children in the U. S. and one in seven in Canada live in poverty – Native American/First Nations and African American children are at greatest risk • Poverty is associated with: – Impairments in learning ability and school achievement, less education, low-paying jobs, inadequate health care, single-parent status, poor nutrition, and exposure to violence © Cengage Learning 2016

Socioeconomic Disadvantages Associated with Poverty • Poverty’s impact on children – More conduct problems, chronic illness, school problems, emotional disorders, and cognitive/learning problems • Poverty indirectly impacts children’s adjustment, which affects learning and mental health © Cengage Learning 2016

Sex Differences • Boys and girls express problems differently • Certain disorders are more common in boys than girls, and vice versa – Aggression is expressed more directly by boys; expressed more indirectly by girls • Sex differences appear negligible in children under age three – Disparities increase with age © Cengage Learning 2016

Externalizing Problems • Higher in boys than girls in preschool and early elementary years – Exhibited as acting-out behaviors, e. g. , aggression and delinquency • Rates for boys and girls converge by age 18 © Cengage Learning 2016

Internalizing Problems • Higher rates in girls • Associated with: – Anxiety, depression, or withdrawn behavior – Somatic complaints – Eating disorders – Emotional disorders with peak age of onset in adolescence © Cengage Learning 2016

Trajectories of Externalizing and Internalizing Problems © Cengage Learning 2016

Sex Differences and Resilience • Types of childrearing environments that predict resilience – For boys: • A male role model • Structure and rules • Encouragement of emotional expressiveness – For girls: • Households that combine risk taking and independence with support from female caregiver © Cengage Learning 2016

What is Race? • Most cultural anthropologists see race as a socially constructed concept, not a biological one • Minority children in the U. S. are overrepresented in rates of some disorders – Substance abuse, delinquency, and teen suicide © Cengage Learning 2016

The Effects of Race and Ethnicity • When controlling for other effects (SES, gender, age, referral status) – Few differences emerge in relation to race or ethnicity • Barriers remain in access to, and quality and outcomes of, care for minority children – Minority children face multiple disadvantages, including poverty and marginalization © Cengage Learning 2016

What is Culture? • Values, beliefs, and practices that characterize a particular ethnocultural group – Contribute to development and expression of children’s disorders – Affect how people/institutions react to children’s problems – Affect how problems are expressed © Cengage Learning 2016

Culture and Diversity • Important not to generalize research from one culture to another • Social and cultural beliefs and values influence: – The meaning given to behaviors – The way in which behaviors are responded to – The forms of expression and their outcomes © Cengage Learning 2016

Child Maltreatment and Non-Accidental Trauma: Prevalence • Nearly one million cases of child abuse and neglect occur in the U. S. each year • Estimate: more than one-third of 10 - to 16 year-olds experience physical and/or sexual assaults • Acts of violence contribute to PTSD, major depressive disorder, or substance abuse/dependence © Cengage Learning 2016

Child Maltreatment and Non-Accidental Trauma: Consequences • Financial consequences of abuse and trauma: $124 billion per year in the U. S. • More attention needs to be given to developing new ways to prevent and help those exposed to maltreatment and trauma © Cengage Learning 2016

Special Issues Concerning Adolescents and Sexual Minority Youths • Early- to mid-adolescence is an important transitional period for healthy adjustment • Issues during adolescence – Substance use, risky sexual behavior, violence, accidental injuries, and mental health problems • Special needs and problems of adolescents are receiving greater attention © Cengage Learning 2016

Special Issues: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgendered (LGBT) Youths • LGBT youths in middle and high schools are more likely to be victimized by their peers and family members • LGBT youths have higher rates of mental health problems © Cengage Learning 2016

Lifespan Implications • Impact is most severe when problems go untreated for extended periods of time – About 20% of children with the most chronic and serious disorders: • Are least likely to finish school • Are most likely to have social problems and psychiatric disorders • Lifelong consequences associated with child psychopathology are costly © Cengage Learning 2016

Lifespan Implications – Solutions • Children can overcome major obstacles – When provided with circumstances and opportunities that promote healthy adaptation and competence • Major initiatives for prevention and intervention have resulted from recognition of children’s mental health problems © Cengage Learning 2016

Looking Ahead • Children cannot advocate on their own behalf • Viewing the whole child is the best strategy in understanding abnormal child and adolescent psychology • Efforts to change policies and programs directed to- ward children and youths are gaining momentum © Cengage Learning 2016