A New Generation Backlash New Frontier and Great
A New Generation Backlash “New Frontier and Great Society” “I have a dream”
The Evolution of the Civil Rights Struggle n 1945 – 1954 – In spite of Double V, little changed – 1947 Jackie Robinson – Chipping away at separate but equal n n n 1938 UMO law school desegregated because no black law school existed 1946 – segregation on interstate bussing illegal 1950 – UTX law desegregated – inferior
Judicial Action n n 1954 – Brown V. Bd. Ed. Topeka KA – segregation feelings of inferiority 1955 – desegregate “with all deliberate speed” – Eisenhower – no response – Massive state resistance – states denied funds to schools that desegregated, – Southern Manifesto – 100 southern congressmen – urged states to use all lawful means to bring about a reversal – 1956 – not a single desegregated school in the Deep South. (by ’ 65 still 75% of schools segregated
n NC – Governor: “go ahead with our segregated schools as usual” urged Blacks to accept “voluntary segregation” – Pearson Plan – close public schools rather than integrate them; provide tuition money for private schools. – Helms – public education “merely a habit”
n n n Little Rock (1957) – defiance of court order by Faubus, ”race mixing is communism”, televised Eisenhower asserted national supremacy troops, (A first since ’ 76) Little Rock shut schools following year.
Presidential Action n Truman Committee on Civil Rights published “To Secure These Rights” Dixiecrat Revolt
Direct Action: provoke confrontation to create tension and change n 1955 Montgomery, Alabama – Rosa Parks, L King and boycott economic pressure but also SC court decision – Southern Christian Leadership Conference n CORE (1942) – 1961 – freedom rides great violence – Sit ins beginning in 1960 - Greensboro
Background to the Sixties n n n “happy days” of the fifties. Dynamic conservatism of Eisenhower. Conformity but also poverty and strains (women, beats, the poor, African Americans) Foreign affairs – New look defense, liberation arms race and increasing fear – Increasing strains with SU: Sputnik and space race, Castro, U-2 incident, Beginnings in Vietnam
“Some have very cynically suggested that Kennedy’s, like Garfield's, greatest accomplishment as President was his death and Johnson’s ascendancy to the office” n Foreign Affairs – Bold inaugural “bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe” – Greater emphasis on the Third World (part of CW – remember Cuba) n n Peace Corps Alliance for Progress – a Latin American Marshall Plan best LA relations since FDR
n Military Policy – No more “new look” – Flexible Response n n Atomic weapons or conventional forces or military support or CIA Defense spending up. 20%;
n n Problems with the SU – First year disasters n Bay of Pigs – spring of 61. Eisenhower planned adventure – K did not reject plan but did not send more support to the disaster – Bad meeting with Khrushchev Stood tall in Berlin where Khrushchev threatened war if US troops were not moved. K called up more troops. Berlin Wall to seal off escapes from East Europe. US remained. Missile Crisis of ‘ 62. K: “remove the missile or Cuba will be quarantined and the missiles will be removed by force. 180 US ships called into service, 250, 000 troops – SU blinked. – Final solution US would not invade if Su withdraw its missiles; second agreement that the US would pull missiles out of Turkey
n Agreements with the SU to stop testing of nuclear weapons at sea or in the atmosphere and a hot line established.
n Vietnam: Background to the war – No interest in supporting Ho in 1918 – French Indochina had fallen to Japan in WWII – Most supported Ho Chi Minh and Vietminh (nationalists) – 1945 – Vietnam declared independence but France attempted to reassert control – Increasing US support for French (2/3)
n n n 1954 - climactic battle Dien Bien Phu Eisenhower – “domino theory” but no air support Geneva Accords – Division at 17. elections in 1956 – US not a signatory – Increasing US aid of Ngo Diem in the south but Diem did little to gain support of people – By 1957 Viet Cong rose
Kennedy n n Planned the coup that overthrew Diem (no assistance to the people) new regime was no more popular – Still Vietcong controlled 80% 16, 000 advisers stationed in Vietnam – what more would have been done is speculative; he did resist Johnson's demands for greater involvement and made plans for withdrawal in ‘ 65
At Home n Little accomplished – Congressional opposition to aid for medical care, education or minimum wage – Economic growth – Clean Air Act of 63 – Space race – Inspiration – “best and brightest”
Direct Action Bore Fruit n Kennedy 1960, not much interest in civil rights – Federal marshals to protect freedom riders, and to protect James Meredith at Battle of Ole’ Miss. n 1963 Birmingham Alabama bull Conner and attack dogs K, “who among us would be content to have the color of his skin changed and stand in his place? . . . It is time to act. ” “the civil rights movement should thank God for Bull Connor” – What did this look like in the world? n Still no movement on K’s civil rights bill in spite of March on Washington in 63 and Birmingham Sunday school bombing
n n K’s death Johnson “no memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor K’s memory than the earliest passage of the civil rights bill” 1964 Civil Rights Act – outlawed segregation in public accommodations and facilities + Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
Voting n As of 1947 only 12% of eligible blacks were registered to vote in south – Economic pressures, literacy tests, poll taxes n n Eisenhower passed Civil Rights Act of ’ 57 – established a commission to investigate voting rights SCLC mass protests in Selma (only 1% could vote) terrible televised violence tv address by Johnson Voting Rights Act of 65 (federal examiners to register qualified voters, suspended literacy tests Passage of 24 th Amendment to strike down poll tax Black Registration in south from 1 to 3. 1 M. In ’ 68 it reached the same level as
Black Power n In spite of changes, still problems remained – Kerner Committee – 1963 – 50% of blacks in poverty (20% of nation) – “two societies, one black, one white – separate and unequal” n 7 years shorter lives,
Roots of Black Power n n Ida Wells and WEB Dubois both spoke of self defense at the turn of the century. David Walker of black uprisings in the 1830 s New concerns: de facto segregation, poverty, new region (north and west) New leadership. – SNCC led by Stokely Carmichael asked whites to leave organization “What we gonna start saying now is Black Power” ( white response? ) – Black Panther Movement in 1967 (Bobby Seale and Hey Newton) self help organization, schools, protection – “violence is as American as cherry pie. ” – Malcolm X Even King stated nonviolence must be “militant, massive” in months before death.
n 1965 – 1968 “long hot summers” sparked by police violence, and then King’s death – Violence in Los Angeles(34 deaths, 30 M property damages), Newark (25 deaths), Detroit (43 deaths) – In 1968 – 100 cities rioted. – Federal government conclusion=“poverty, slum housing, poor education and police brutality” causes
Johnson n The Great Society – Goal to be another FDR – Plans derailed by “that bitch of a war that took me from the woman I loved” – 1963 and 1964 civil rights legislation – War on Poverty – Economic Opportunity Act drop in poverty from 20 to 18%, for blacks from 40 to 20% n Office of Economic Assistance – Job Corps – Work study for students – System for training the unskilled – Money to depressed areas
n n Medicare – hospital insurance for the elderly Medicaid – grants to the states to help pay medical care for the poor. Elementary and Secondary School Act (baby boom? ); Head Start Funding for the arts, slum clearance, new immigration act of 65 did away with quotas (based on skills and need instead 0
Vietnam n 1964 – Gulf of Tonkin Resolution – Torpedo boats fired on? – GTR – “take all necessary measures to prevent any further aggression” - only 2 votes against – Johnson (later) I felt like a hitchhiker on a TX highway in the rain – can’t run, can’t hide, can’t make it stop. ” – HO Chi Minh “you can kill ten for every 1, I kill and I will win. ”
n n Operation Rolling Thunder: air attacks (by the end of ’ 68 1 million more tons dropped than in all WWII) (Nixon later dropped another 3 million tons 538, 000 troops Search and destroy missions “it became necessary to destroy the town to save it 1/5 of Vietnamese became refugees
n Growing opposition “too long, too bloody, not worth it, unfair draft” – Never a majority movement – First on college campuses as early as 1965 – Role of TV
1968 – it all comes apart n Tet Offensive – simultaneous attacks throughout South including US embassy in Saigon – Attack repulsed but tv images? – Growing concerns – Major publications, even WS Journal and Cronkite questioned war +called for negotiated settlement n Johnson “first step to deescalate the conflict (halted bombing)… I shall not seek nor shall I accept the nomination of my party for another term. ” – ***Recognition of limits: China, Korea, Vietnam,
Other Issues n n Black power, “long hot summers” New wave of feminism Feminine Mystique, NOW, consciousness raising, glass ceiling, discriminatory pay, (later Roe v. Wade – 1973)(peak early 70 s) – Backlash - Phyllis Schlafly n Youth culture awry – Port Huron Statement – SDS (1962) “increased democracy and less materialism) – Free Speech Movement – Berkeley – Growing counterculture – behavior – anti-war behavior
A Troubled Election n n Assassinatio ns: King and Kennedy Democrats divided and dispirited– convention – Police riot in Chicago, gas on floor – Humphrey
n George Wallace – populist became racist - “Stand up for America” – Crack down on “rioters, limousine liberals, integrationists and long hair pot smoking, draft card burning youth” – “if any demonstrator ever lays [sic] down in front of my car, it’ll be the last car he’ll ever lay down in front of. ” – 14%of vote and 5 states
n Richard Nixon – again – “a secret peace plan” – “law and order” and southern strategy – End “programs that have failed” – Rode bitterness “the people on relief got better jobs, got better homes than I’ve got. ” African Americans “are eating steak and this Polish bastard is eating chicken. ” – a supporter n Nixon and Wallace received 57% of the vote. Radical change in politics.
Vietnam n Secret plan – Nixon Doctrine – US a partner rather than a protector Vietnamization – Massive bombing including secret bombing of supply routes in Cambodia – “mad bomber “I want the North Vietnamese to believe I’ve reached a point where I might do anything. ” – Secret war in Cambodia (no consent from congress – 1970)
n n Nixon’s appeal to silent majority Growing student activism – By ’ 70, ’ 70% of population opposed to war – Kent State -4/4/70 and Jackson State – 80% of college campuses experienced protests and 400 colleges suspended operations
Ending the War n n War dragged on – morale low Renewed bombing in 72 led to “peace at hand” announced just before elections – Withdrawal of all troops, return of POWs – SV did not go along with it Christmas bombing and a promise that the US could “respond with full force should the settlement be violated. ” – The end: SV fell in 1975, US lost 58, 000 dead, 2 M Vietnamese dead, $15 B, horrible inflation – Crisis of returning soldiers (media)
Detente n 3 dimensional game with China and Soviet Union working with Kissinger – Recognition of Red China in order to capitalize on Sino-Soviet split, seek “normalization of relationship” and visit 72 – Visit to Moscow in 72 – first of SALT and anti. ABM treaties. Caps and mutual assured deterrence
Other Issues n n War Powers Act 1973 and New isolationsim In support of containment – Support of Israel in Yom Kippur War first oil embargo by OPEC and inflation – no more cheap energy, increasing significance of Mideast – Support of Shaw of Iran, and South American strong men; opposition of Allende in Chile
Domestic Issues n n Moderate support of the Great Society – creation of EPA, OSHA, family assistance plan to guarantee a minimal income for families (not passed), revenue sharing Philadelphia Plan – timetables, goals and “set-asides” for minority hiring – Bakke v. California: racial factors can be considered but no admits based on race alone (1978) n n Testified against extending Voting Rights Act of 65; condemned Swann v. Mecklenburg and pleaded for a postponement in desegregation” Conservative appointments to court -
Economic Stagnation n Limits on prosperity – Not very well understood – Inflation – cost of living tripled between 70 and 82. (Nixon forced to freeze prices and wages - 1971 – Real income has been stagnant since 1970. (slight uptick in late 90 s. n n n Gas prices up Vietnam war, social spending, without tax increase more money chasing fewer goods Competition from foreign markets
But n n n Used IRS and FBI to infiltrate leftist groups “enemies list, ” “anyone who doesn’t support us, we’ll destroy” Broke into psychiatrist to discredit Daniel Ellsberg CREEP and dirty tricks - 1972 break in to Democratic Party headquarters at Watergate Agnew forced to resign in 1973 Nixon and Watergate – – – Denial John Dean’s accusations Tapes and subpoena Saturday Night Massacre Tapes released in 1974 resignation 8/9/74
A Ford in Your Past n n n First unelected P Full pardon for Nixon for any and all crimes – “heal wounds” suspicion Fall of South Vietnam; Congress provided no aid
Carter n n n An outsider. Down home manner – the anti-Nixon. Ran against the economic mess but won a very narrow victory Continuing malaise- inflation, gas prices. Carter discussed limits of growth and problems of “materialism”. VERY UNPOPULAR Humanitarian diplomacy and human rights – – A return of Panama in 2000 with US benefits. Camp David – peace between Egypt and Israel. SALT II did not pass due to Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Carter Doctrine – response to invasion of Afghanistan. US would protect the Persian Gulf
Iran n 11/4/79 – Americans in embassy taken hostage in Iran – demand for return of shah (in US) – Economic sanctions – Failed rescue raid (low tide of US confidence? ) – Hostage released on Reagan’s inauguration day
Reagan: Morning in America
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