A facial makeup in Peking Opera But dont
A facial makeup in Peking Opera But don’t worry, he is not going to give you this presentation.
A Metaphor-awareness Approach to the Teaching of Translation Zinan Ye
1.Language is fundamentally metaphorical 2.Why do people use metaphor? 3.Universality of conceptual metaphor 4. Universal aspect of metaphor and translation 5. Weighing the significance of metaphor 6.Core meaning and mental picture formation 7. Conclusion
1.Language is fundamentally metaphorical
The traditional view 1. Metaphor is for most people a device of poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish - a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language. 2. Metaphor is typically viewed characteristic of language alone, a matter of words rather than thought.
A new cognitive view: 1. Metaphor is a tool so ordinary that everyone uses it everyday. 2. Far from being merely a matter of words, metaphor is a matter of thought. A few important scholars holding this view: George lakoff, Mark Turner, Mark Johnson, Raymond Gibbs and Zoltan Kövecses.
If we agree with the above theory, then Metaphor is everywhere. It exists extensively in our language, in everyday talks, in economic, commercial, technical, legal, political or many other types of texts. We can thoroughly discuss translation by way of discussing metaphor.
Can we think without metaphor? Can we think about subjective experience and judgment without metaphor? Hardly. If we consciously make enormous effort to separate out metaphorical from nonmetaphorical thought, we probably can do some very minimal and unsophisticated nonmetaphorical reasoning. But almost no one ever does this, and such reasoning would never capture the full inferential capacity of complex metaphorical thought. These colors are similar. These colors are close. Professor Wang and I are close.
2.Why do people use metaphor?
1. conceptual metaphor (概念隐喻) 2. linguistic metaphor (or metaphorical expression) 3. target domain (目标域) 4. source domain (源域) The essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another. Target is harder to understand; Source is easier to understand. We try to understand target through source.
I am up in mind. I am conceptual. Linguistic metaphors, you are under my control. I am your leader!!! We are down in language. We are linguistic metaphors. Conceptual metaphors, please give us orders. We will follow them. Conceptual metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY. I am source domain I am target domain Conceptual metaphor and linguistic metaphor
1. They will have a good start in life. 2. They will go far in life. 3. They will have a long life span. 4. They will reach the end of the road. 5. He is without any direction in life. 6. I’m where I want to be in life. 7. I’m at a crossroads in my life. 8. She’ll go places in life. 9. He’s never let anyone get in his way. 10. She’s gone through a lot in life. LIFE IS A JOURNEY
I AM A CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR: LIFE IS A JOURNEY We are linguistic metaphors: A good start, Go far, A long life span, End of the road, Without direction, At a crossroads……. . We can go on and on… Life is a journey.
3.Universality of conceptual metaphor
* Experiential basis of metaphor * Bodily motivation 理据 or Embodied mind. Conceptual metaphors are grounded in or motivated by human experience (sometimes physical expereince).
CONTROL IS UP. (I am on top of the situation. ) HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN. (feeling up or down. ) TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT. (The new semester is approaching. ) Embodied nature of metaphors
AFFECTION IS WARMTH. Experience:When someone hugs you, you feel the warmth. Universal experience: This warmth has no cultural difference. Shared conceptual metaphor:AFFECTION IS WARMTH English linguistic metaphor: warmly welcome, cold reception Chinese comprehension: Easy to understand. Chinese translation: Literal translation is fine: 热烈欢迎, 冷遇。
LOVE IS A JOURNEY Experience:We all have the experience of taking a trip. Universal experience: This experience is not culture-bound. Shared conceptual metaphor: LOVE IS A JOURNEY. English linguistic metaphor: We have to go our separate ways. Chinese comprehension: Easy to understand. Chinese translation: Literal translation is fine: 我们不得不分道扬镳。 More linguistic realizations of LOVE IS A JOURNEY: We can’t turn back now. The relationship is not going anywhere. It has been a long and bumpy road. We are just spinning our wheels. The relationship is a dead-end street.
LOVE IS AN ECONOMIC EXCHANGE Experience: We all have experiences of trading in market with money. Universal experience: This experience has no cultural difference. Shared conceptual metaphor:LOVE IS AN ECONOMIC EXCHANGE. English linguistic metaphor :The love is such I can no way repay。 Chinese comprehension: Easy to understand. Chinese translation: Literal translation is fine: 爱至如此,无法偿还。
4. Universality of conceptual metaphor and translation
Types of metaphor and translation Types of linguistic metaphor: Classified by translation scholars (Newmark’s classification, such as dead metaphor, stock metaphor, original metaphor, etc. ) Types of conceptual metaphors can be seen from the following perspectives: 1. Conventionality (常规程度) 2. Generality (笼统程度) 3. Cognitive function (认知功能) 4. Nature (特性)
Conventionality The degree of conventionality: how well worn or how deeply entrenched a metaphor is in everyday use by ordinary people. 1. I defended my argument. (ARGUMENT IS WAR) 2. Two roads diverged in a wood, and I— I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference. (LIFE IS A JOURNEY) 3. Life is a mirror. If you smile, it smiles back at you. (LIFE IS A MIRROR, image metaphor) 4. The State of New Jersey is a valley of humility between two peaks of conceit. (IMAGE METAPHOR) Rule of thumb: The more conventional or more deeply entrenched a metaphor is, the more freedom the translator has in dealing with the metaphor. The more unique a metaphor is, the more responsibility the translator has in reproducing the metaphor in the target text. To Know the degree of conventionality of a metaphor gives us guidance in translating a metaphor.
Generality Generic-level metaphor (类属隐喻) Specific-level metaphor (种属隐喻) Upper or generic level: EVENTS ARE ACTIONS Lower or specific level: LIFE IS A JOURNEY The implication for translation is that translators can move up and down or left and right to find the best translation.
Generic level metaphor Specific level Linguistic
1. EMOTIONS ARE FORCES (generic level metaphor 类属隐喻) ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER (specific level metaphor ) His pent-up anger welled up inside him. (linguistic metaphor) 2. EMOTIONS ARE FORCES INTENSE ANGER PRODUCES PRESSURE ON THE CONTAINER He could barely contain his rage. 1. His pent-up anger welled up inside him. 2. He could barely contain his rage. (The above two sentences are grounded in or motivated by, different specific level metaphors, but they share the same generic level metaphor. ) In some contexts, are they interchangeable in translation? We often paraphrase in translation, so can we paraphrase 1 by using 2? After all, the two sentences say the same thing: He is angry. When can we do that? When can’t we do that? UP/Down vs. LEFT/RIGHT
Moving between left and right or Horizontal move When you change from one specific metaphor to another specific metaphor, you are not moving from lower to higher, you are moving from left to right at the same level, or “horizontal move”. To find out the situations in which the horizontal move is allowed has a lot to do with translation practice. More examples of horizontal move:
Generic level metaphor Vertical move Specific level Linguistic Horizontal move Linguistic Specific level Linguistic
We have a mountain to climb in the House to achieve an override. “ 如要在众院推翻法案,仍有一座山要爬”,(The specific-level conceptual metaphor behind this sentence is MOUNTAINS ARE OBSTACLES,) “若要在众院推翻法案,仍有一个难关要过”(go through a pass) ( The specific-level conceptual metaphor behind this sentence is PASSES ARE OBSTACLES,) But these two specific-level metaphors are from the more abstract generic-level metaphor: BARRIERS ARE DIFFICULTIES, as “mountain” and “pass” are specific examples of a barrier. Rule of thumb: In general, horizontal movement changes language styles without changing basic meaning, so in texts where language or style is less important, the horizontal move can be allowed. The devil is in the details, but I don’t care too much about the details. So to know when this type of horizontal moving is allowed should be part of translation instructions.
Moving between higher and lower levels or vertical move When you are moving from specific metaphor to generic one or the other way round, you are moving from higher to lower or vise versa, so this type of moving can be viewed as vertical move. To find out the rules about vertical move should also be part of translation instructions. Here are some examples of vertical move:
Money-starved Renminbistarved Dollarstarved They are money-starved Can I use “dollar” to translate “money” here? Dollar is more specific than money, so if we use dollar to translate money, we move from generic to specific, or move vertically from higher level to lower level.
Her way was strewn with invisible rocks and lions. “Way” is metaphoric (LIFE IS A JOURNEY). “Rock” and “lions” are metaphoric. (image metaphor) 1. 她的道路上布满了看不见的岩石和狮子。 (literally with rocks and lions) 2. 她的道路上布满了看不见的障碍物和危险物。 (with things that block her and things that are dangerous) 3. 她的道路上布满了看不见的障碍和危险。 (with obstacle and danger) Moving from “rocks and lions” to “things/things ” to “obstacle/danger” is moving from specific to generic, or vertical move from lower to higher.
Interpretation of many proverbs needs the GENERIC IS SPECIFIC conceptual metaphor to make sense, such as The early bird catches the worm. Bird, catch and worm are all used in a metaphoric sense. But the interpretation has to go up from specific to generic to make sense (If you do something first, you will get what you want before others). Rule of thumb: 1. To move vertically from generic to specific (as in money-starved to dollar-starved) adds details, so if the text is serious stuff, this moving direction is not recommended. 2. To move vertically from specific to generic (as in rocks and lions) loses the details, so when the details are important, this direction of moving is not recommended. In other words, 1. To move from specific to generic loses culture, but is a way to overcome cultural barriers; 2. to move from generic to specific adds cultural elements, but is a way to impose target culture to the source culture. To summarize the “rules” for vertical move is also beneficial to translation instructions.
Cognitive function 1. Structural metaphor (结构隐喻): understand the target domain in terms of the structure of the source domain. 2. 2. Ontological metaphor (实体隐喻): Conceive of experiences in terms of objects, substances or containers in general. 3. Orientational metaphor (方位隐喻): Conceive of the target by means of some basic human spatial orientations.
1. Structural metaphor: understand the target domain in terms of the structure of the source domain. Structural metaphors are based on things or concepts that are very familiar to us. TIME IS MONEY You’re wasting my time. (你在浪费我的时间。) This gadget will save you hours. (将为你节省几个小时。) I don’t have time to give you. (我没有时间可给你。) That flat tire cost me an hour. (. . . 让我损失了一小时。) Put aside some time for Ping Pong. (留点时间打乒乓。) Rule of thumb: Structural metaphors are based on things or concepts that are very familiar to us. The cultural barrier is minimal. The “direct” translation is highly possible.
Ontological metaphor: Conceive of experiences in terms of objects, substances or containers in general. THE MIND IS A MACHINE My mind is not working today. We are running out of steam. CONTAINER CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR The ship is coming into view. I get a lot of satisfaction out of reading books. He fell into depression. Rule of thumb: Ontological metaphors uses objects, substances or containers. Most, if not all, of these things are very basic, having no big cultural differences. “Direct” or “near direct” translation is possible.
Orientational metaphor: Conceive of the target by means of some basic human spatial orientations, such as “up and down”. Those orientations are even more basic and shared by different cultures. Happy is up; sad is down. I am feeling up (or down), I am soaring with happiness, he is down. ) Conscious is up; unconscious is down. wake up, fall asleep (醒来,睡去等) More is up; less is down. My salary goes up; the number of students goes down. ( 资上 去) Good is up; bad is down. We hit a peak last year, but it’s been downhill ever since. (顶峰 下坡) Rule of thumb: Since these metaphors are based on human spatial orientations, which are not culture bound, to keep the original orientation is possible, even though it is not required to do so in most cases.
The nature of metaphor From the perspective of nature of metaphor, we can divide metaphors into: image schema metaphor image or one shot metaphor Those image schema metaphors, such as we previously discussed (namely structural, ontological and orientational), are all very abstract concepts, for example, container is very abstract, such as only having interior or exterior, which are the most basic features of a container. Rule of thumb: Most linguistic metaphoric expressions derived from image schema conceptual metaphors pose no difficulty in understanding and can be “directly” translated, because the source domains of the metaphors reply on basic human schemas.
But there are metaphors relying on images with rich details (strong image). image metaphor My wife’s waist is an hourglass. Supermodel is just a twig. Rule of thumb: Most those are metaphors intentionally created, and can be more significant. “Direct” translation is encouraged whenever it is possible.
5. Weighing the significance of a metaphor
Two ways to weigh: 1. Foregrounding is caused when the language device used deviates from the norm to attract attention and is perceived as uncommon, such as poetic metaphor. The opposite is automatization. (Definition by Prague School of Linguistics)
1. “Translationese” can be discussed by way of foregrounding. 2. In translation, a distinction needs to be made between intentional foregrounding and unintentional foregrounding. Many foregrounded expressions that are not foregrounded in the source text are foregrounded in the target text. Foregrounding of this type carries little or no weight. 3. Foregrounding caused by the difference of the language systems or intentionally created by the author? Foregrounding purposely created by the author carries more weight. This applies to metaphor.
A. Generic level metaphors are culturally shared, and are not the source of foregrounding. Give me a call. (ACTIONS ARE OBJECTS) B. Specific level metaphors are culturally shared to a great extent and are not major source either. Don’t set me on fire. 别惹我发火; You are pouring oil on fire. 你在火上加油 (ANGER IS FIRE) Exceptions: 上肝火 (foregrounded) C. The image metaphors that are not culturally shared , but created by the author for artistic purpose, are often the source of foregrounding. Her waist is an hourglass. (foregrounded) Rule of thumb: A foregrounded metaphor intentionally created by the author carries more weight than one caused by the difference in language systems, and needs to be more carefully handled in translation.
2. Text types Another way to weigh a metaphor is to look at the text type. Metaphors are weighed in different texts. Newmark’s Practical classification: expressive informative vocative Informative texts: less weight Vocative texts: hard to say without context Expressive texts: often foregrounded, more weight.
6.Core meaning and mental picture formation
7. 1 Importance of core meaning Polysemy (words with several senses): in many cases in translation, we produce translations that are ambiguous because we are not quite sure about the meaning. To find core meaning of a word can make the meaning crystal clear, because it creates a mental picture of a word instead of description by words. Core meaning is often the basic meaning from which metaphoric meanings are derived. Core meaning is often image-based.
For example The metaphoric basis of UP in Think up an idea is UP IS BRINGING LOST SUBJECTS TO THE SURFACE. This suggests that ideas are buried in the mind.
More examples: Brzezinski…discusses the inevitable contradictions and tensions that enmesh a democratic society that is also a global hegemon. ROOT ANALOGY: CONFLICTING PURPOSE IS OPPOSITE DIRECTION LITERAL MEANING: force which stretches a rope, cable, string apart (You can see an image) METAPHORICAL MEANING: differences between forces, arguments, or influences EXAMPLE: the movie explored the tension between public duty and personal loyalty.
Tensions created here I am a democratic society. I want to go left. I am the USA. I am experiencing TENSIONS, as I am being pulled in two opposite directions. CONFLICTING PURPOSE IS OPPOSITE DIRECTION I am a global hegemon. I need to go right. Brzezinski…discusses the inevitable contradictions and tensions that enmesh a democratic society that is also a global hegemon.
He was ……warning of a collision to come between an insurgent Islam and a gently declining West. ROOT ANALOGY: EMOTION IS CURRENT/WAVE LITERAL MEANING: rise in the level of the sea (picture) METAPHORICAL MEANING: sudden increase of … EXAMPLE: I felt a surge of sympathy for him
2. broader policies intended to move China toward internationally accepted standards of conduct. 旨在将中国引导到国际接受的行为标准上来。 ROOT ANALOGY: ACTIVITY/PROCESS IS MOVEMENT (FORWARD) LITERAL MEANING: cause someone to move forward (picture) METAPHORICAL MEANING: cause somebody to change behavior, or opinion EXAMPLE: now we have a new boss things are beginning to move faster.
I am China. I am being moved. Move China I am China. I am being guided. Guide China
A poem compresses much in a small space and adds music, thus heightening its meaning. 一首诗意义丰富,恰在于言简意赅、抑扬顿挫。 (Paraphrasing: A poem is meaningful, concise and musical ) ROOT ANALOGY: A POEM IS A CONTAINER, LITERAL MEANING: Substance is compressed in a container (an image) METAPHORICAL MEANING: A meaningful (poem) EXAMPLE: compressed work schedules Improved translation: 一首诗集丰富内容于方寸,再配上韵律,便意 蕴非凡。
I am a poem. A lot of things are compressed in my small space. A novelist has to write a book about what I described, but I did it in a few lines. I am a container. A poem compresses much in a small space.
7. Conclusion More should be done to create a comprehensive metaphor awareness approach to translation: 1. The basic theory for metaphor-awareness approach; 2. Connection of the basic theory to practice; 3. Details of classroom activities in such a course; 4. Selection of texts for a “metaphor-awareness” course; 5. Evaluation of homework and exams in such a course. . In other words, a comprehensive teaching strategy is needed.
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