6 Memory Remembrance of Things Past and Future

6 Memory: Remembrance of Things Past —and Future Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

LEARNING OUTCOMES 1 Define memory and differentiate between types of memories 2 Explain the processes of memory 3 Describe the functions of sensory memory 4 Describe the functions of short-term memory 5 Describe the functions of long-term memory 6 Identify contributors to forgetting 7 Describe the biological aspects of memory Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 2

Truth or Fiction? Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be

Explicit (Declarative) Memory LO 1 • Memory for specific information • Clearly stated or explained • Types • Episodic (autobiographical) memory - Memory of things that happen to a person or take place in his/her presence • Semantic memory - General knowledge Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 4

LO 1 Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory • Memory of how to perform a task • Procedural or skill memory • Involves procedures and skills, both cognitive and physical • Priming: Memory as a result of frequent repetition • Enables one to make automatic associations Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 5

1. Truth or Fiction? LO 1 • A woman who could not remember who she was automatically dialed her mother’s number when the police gave her a telephone • TRUE! Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 6

Retrospective and Prospective Memories LO 1 Retrospective memory • Recalling previously learned information • Displayed by episodic, semantic, and implicit memories Prospective memory • Remembering to do things in the future • May fail due to preoccupation, distraction, or stress Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 7

Prospective Memory Tasks LO 1 Habit tasks • Easier to remember than occasional tasks Event-based tasks • Triggered by events Time-based tasks • Performed at a certain time or after a certain time has elapsed Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 8

Trends in Retrospective and Prospective Memories LO 1 • Age-related decline • Related to speed of cognitive processing rather than loss of information • Prospective memory • Affected by moods and attitudes • Depressed people are less likely to push to remind themselves to do what they intend to do Classroom demonstration - Game of Memory Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 9

Processes of Memory - Encoding LO 2 • First stage of information processing • Process of transforming sensory input into psychological formats that can be represented mentally • Visual code - Stimuli represented as pictures • Acoustic code - Stimuli represented as sounds • Semantic code - Stimuli represented in terms of their meaning Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 10

Processes of Memory - Storage LO 2 • Second stage of information processing • Involves maintaining information over time • Methods of storing information • Maintenance rehearsal: Mental repetition • Elaborative rehearsal: Relating information to something that is already known Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 11

LO 2 2. Truth or Fiction? • Learning must be meaningful if we are to remember it • FICTION! Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 12

Processes of Memory - Retrieval LO 2 • Third stage of information processing • Involves locating information and returning it to consciousness • Difficult while trying to remember: • Large amounts of information • Information that is not understood • Requires knowledge of proper retrieval cues Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 13

Memory LO 2 • Process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved • Stages of memory that determine whether information is retained include: • Sensory memory • Short-term memory • Long-term memory Classroom demonstration - Memory test Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 14

Figure 6. 1 LO 3 Stages of Memory: Sensory, Short. Term, and Long-Term Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 15

LO 3 Sensory Memory • First stage of memory encountered by a stimulus • Holds impressions briefly • Series of perceptions seem to be connected • Memory trace: Lasts for a fraction of a second - Held in a visual sensory register - Decays within a second for visual stimuli Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 16

LO 3 Iconic Memory • Sensory register that holds icons • Icons: Mental representations of visual stimuli • Brief and accurate photographic memories • Eidetic imagery: Ability to retain exact mental representations of visual stimuli over long periods of time Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 17

Iconic Memory and Saccadic Eye Movement LO 3 • Flow of visual information seems smooth and continuous because: • Saccadic eye movements occur about four times a second • Iconic memory holds icons for up to a second Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 18

3. Truth or Fiction? LO 3 • If you can see, you have a photographic memory • TRUE! Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 19

LO 3 Echoic Memory • Sensory register that holds echoes • Echoes: Mental representations of sounds • Memory traces of echoes last longer than those of icons • Enable acoustic codes to aid in the retention of visually presented information Classroom demonstration - Iconic versus Echoic Memory Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 20

LO 4 Short-Term Memory (STM) • Known as working memory • Links a thought through time from its beginning to its end • Images tend to fade after 10– 12 seconds if not rehearsed • Common to encode visual stimuli as auditory stimuli Classroom demonstration - Short-term memory Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 21

Serial-Position Effect LO 4 • Tendency to recall the first and last items in a series • May occur as a result of: • Providing more attention to the first and last stimuli • Rehearsing the first item more often and the last item most recently Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 22

Chunking LO 4 • Grouping of stimuli that are perceived as a discrete piece of information • Average person can remember seven integers at a time Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 23

Figure 6. 2 LO 4 A Familiar Grid Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 24

Interference in Short-Term Memory LO 4 • Prevention of rehearsal can hinder accurate recollection of information • Appearance of new information displaces old information Classroom demonstration - Short-Term Memory Demonstration Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 25

Figure 6. 3 LO 4 The Effect of Interference on Short. Term Memory Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 26

Long-Term Memory (LTM) LO 5 • Vast storehouse of information • Memories can be: - Lost due to lack of proper cues - Kept unconscious by the forces of repression • Distorted by schemas • Schemas: Mental representations of the world - Influence perception of people, objects, and situations • Endures a lifetime Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 27

Figure 6. 4 LO 5 Memory as Reconstructive Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 28

LO 5 4. Truth or Fiction? • All of our experiences are permanently imprinted on the brain, so the proper stimulus can cause us to remember them exactly • FICTION! Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 29

Levels of Processing Information LO 5 • Memories endure when information is processed deeply • • Attend to information Encode information Ponder over encoded information Relate information to things already known Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 30

5. Truth or Fiction? LO 5 • It may be easier for you to recall the name of your first-grade teacher than the name of someone you just met at a party • TRUE! Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 31

LO 5 Flashbulb Memories • Remembering events that are surprising, important, and emotionally stirring • Enabled by: • Distinctness of memories • Formation of network associations • Elaborate rehearsal • Strong feelings are connected with the secretion of stress hormones • Hormones help carve events into memory Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 32

6. Truth or Fiction? LO 5 • You may always recall where you were and what you were doing on the morning of September 11, 2001 • TRUE! Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 33

Organization in Long-Term Memory LO 5 • Information is categorized • Helps make predictions about specific instances • Enables efficient storage of information • Hierarchical structure is maintained • Arrangement based on common or distinct features • Occurs according to a complex system that has a certain internal logic Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 34

Figure 6. 5 LO 5 Hierarchical Structure of Long. Term Memory Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 35

Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) Phenomenon LO 5 • Known as feeling-of-knowing experience • Acoustic and semantic codes provide useful retrieval cues • May reflect incomplete learning • Problem lies in encoding and storage Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 36

Context- and State-Dependent Memory LO 5 Context-dependent memory • Information is better retrieved in the context in which information was encoded and stored, or learned State-dependent memory • Information is better retrieved in the physiological or emotional state in which it was encoded and stored, or learned Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 37

7. Truth or Fiction? LO 5 • If you study with the stereo on, you would probably do better to take the test with the stereo on • TRUE! Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 38

LO 6 Forgetting • Nonsense syllables: Meaningless sets of two consonants that have a vowel in between them • Recall depends on simple acoustic coding and maintenance rehearsal • Used in measurement of forgetting Classroom demonstration - Clive Wearing Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 39

Memory Tasks Used in Measuring Forgetting LO 6 • Recognition • Forgetting is failure to recognize a syllable that was read before • Recall • Measured using paired associates • Relearning • Studied by using the method of savings - Requires determination of savings Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 40

Figure 6. 6 LO 6 Paired Associates Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 41

Figure 6. 7 LO 6 Memory for College Grades, Half a Century Later Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 42

Figure 6. 8 LO 6 Ebbinghaus’s Curve of Forgetting Student project - Ebbinghaus’s research and writings about memory Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 43

LO 6 Interference Theory • View that one forgets material in short-term and long-term memory • Caused due to interference of newly learned material • Types • Retroactive interference: New learning interferes with the retrieval of old learning • Proactive interference: Older learning interferes with capacity to retrieve more recently learned material Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 44

8. Truth or Fiction? LO 6 • Learning Spanish can make it harder to remember French—and vice versa • TRUE! Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 45

LO 6 Repression • Freudian concept of motivated forgetting • Automatic ejection of painful memories from conscious awareness • May be connected with dissociative amnesia • Scientific support for recovery of repressed memories is less • Critics argue that false memories can be implanted Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 46

LO 6 Infantile (Childhood) Amnesia • Inability to recall childhood events • Freud attributed this to repression of aggressive and perverse impulses • Can be the result of: • Immaturity of the hippocampus • Incomplete myelination of brain pathways for the first few years - Contributes to inefficient information processing and memory formation Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 47

Cognitive Explanations for Infantile Amnesia LO 6 • Infants: • Have no interest in remembering the past • May not make meaningful stories of their lives - May lose specific episodes • Make unreliable use of language - Limited ability to encode sensory input Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 48

Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia LO 6 Anterograde amnesia • Memory lapse occurs after physical trauma • Impairs attention, encoding of sensory input, and rehearsal Retrograde amnesia • Source of trauma prevents ability to remember events that occurred prior to physical trauma Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 49

LO 7 Neural Activity and Memory • Psychologists used the concept of engram to study memory in the early 20 th century • Storage of experience involves avenues of communication among brain cells • Long-term potentiation (LTP): Enhanced efficiency in synaptic transmission that follows brief, rapid stimulation • Neurons and hormones influence memory Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 50

Figure 6. 9 LO 7 One Avenue to Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 51

LO 7 Can We Trust Eyewitness Testimony? • Wording of questions can bias testimony • Children are the most suggestible witnesses • Problems with identification based on eyewitness testimony • Less accuracy in identification of different racial/ethnic groups • Identification influenced by misleading suggestions • Little evidence to support that claims of certainty are accurate Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 52

Brain Structures and Memory LO 7 • Memory relies on complex neural networks that draw on different brain areas • Hippocampus: • Stores new memories • Relays sensory information to parts of the cortex Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 53

Brain Structures and Memory (continued 1) LO 7 • Sensory cortex areas store sensory information • Limbic system integrates this information Classroom demonstration - Dissecting a Sheep’s Brain Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 54

LO 5 Brain Structures and Memory (continued 2) • Prefrontal cortex • Executive center in memory • Enables the ability to represent and be aware of past, present, and future events • Thalamus • Involved in the formation of verbal memories • During learning, new synapses are formed, and changes occur at existing synapses Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 55

Figure 6. 10 LO 7 The Prefrontal Cortex of the Brain Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 56

KEY TERMS Explicit memory Episodic memory Semantic memory Implicit memory Priming Retrospective memory • Prospective memory • Encode • • Storage • Maintenance rehearsal • Elaborative rehearsal • Retrieval • Memory • Sensory memory • Memory trace • Iconic memory Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 57

KEY TERMS • • Eidetic imagery Echoic memory Short-term memory (STM) Working memory Serial-position effect Chunk Displace • Long-term memory (LTM) • Repression • Schemas • Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon • Context-dependent memory • State-dependent memory Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 58

KEY TERMS Nonsense syllables Paired associates Method of savings Savings Interference theory • Retroactive interference • • • • Proactive interference Dissociative amnesia Infantile amnesia Hippocampus Anterograde amnesia Retrograde amnesia Engram Long-term potentiation (LTP) Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 59

SUMMARY • Memory is the process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved • Types of memory include explicit memory, implicit memory, retrospective memory, and prospective memory • Three stages of memory • Sensory memory, short-term memory, and longterm memory Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 60

SUMMARY • Forgetting is caused by decay, displacement, or retrieval failure • Nonsense syllables are used to measure forgetting • Repression could also lead to forgetting • Psychologists had used the concept of the engram to study memory • Today, research focuses on the role of stimulants, neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, and structures in the brain Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PSYCH 5 | CH 6 61