5 Infancy Cognitive Development Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning

5 Infancy: Cognitive Development Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 2

Cognitive Development • Focuses on the development of children’s perception and mental representation • Stages of cognitive development • • Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operational Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 3

Sensorimotor Stage (continued 1) • First two years of cognitive development • Infants progress to goal-oriented behavior • Sub stages • Simple reflexes - First month after birth - Dominated by assimilation of sources of stimulation into inborn reflexes • Primary circular reactions - One to four months - Beginning of the ability to coordinate various sensorimotor schemes Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 4

Sensorimotor Stage (continued 2) • Secondary circular reactions - Four to eight months - Repeated patterns of activity due to their effect on the environment • Coordination of secondary schemes - Eight to twelve months - Show intentional goal-directed behavior and differentiate between how to achieve a goal and the goal itself - Gain the capacity to imitate gestures and sounds that were previously ignored Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 5

Sensorimotor Stage (continued 3) • Tertiary circular reactions - Twelve to eighteen months • Applying established ideas to new situations through trial-and-error • Invention of new means through mental combinations - Eighteen to twenty four months • Transition between sensorimotor development and the development of symbolic thought Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 6

Sensorimotor Stage (continued 4) • Object permanence • Realization that an object or person exists even when out of sight • Neonates do not recognize objects which are not within their immediate sensory grasp • A-not-B error: Made when selecting the same place even after knowing and seeing that the object is hidden in a new place Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 7

Figure 5. 1 Development of Object Permanence Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 8

Information Processing Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 9

Information Processing Approach • View of cognitive development that focuses on children’s sensory information • Memory and imitation are used as tools by infants for processing information • Infants’ memory improves between two and six months of age, if they receive a reminder of being tested • Deferred imitation refers to imitation of actions after a time delay Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 10

Mirror Neurons • Activated when the individual performs a motor act or observes another individual engaging in the same act • Connected with: • Built-in human capacity to acquire language • Observational learning • Gender differences in empathy Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 11

Individual Differences in Intelligence Among Infants Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 12

Individual Differences in Intelligence • Bayley Scales of Infant Development - Test of intellectual development among infants • Consists of mental-scale items and motor-scale items - Mental scale assesses verbal communication, perceptual skills, learning and memory, and problem-solving skills - Motor scale assesses gross motor skills, such as standing, walking, and climbing Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 13

Individual Differences in Intelligence (continued) • Testing infants • Screen them to find out handicaps • Detect neurological problems • Instability of individual scores in infancy • Scores obtained during first year of life correlated moderately with scores obtained a year later Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 14

Table 5. 1 Items from the Bayley Scales of Infant Development Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 15

Language Development Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 16

Early Vocalizations • Children develop language according to an invariant sequence of steps or stages • Begins with prelinguistic vocalizations • Do not represent actions or objects • Convey verbal messages through crying, cooing, and babbling • Echolalia: Infants repeat syllables • Intonation: Use of pitches of various levels to communicate the desired message Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 17

Development of Vocabulary • Receptive vocabulary outpaces the expressive vocabulary • Receptive vocabulary: Number of words one understands • Expressive vocabulary: Number of words one can use in conveying a language • First word • Not clear • Spoken between 11 -13 months • Brief and consists of one or two syllables Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 18

Development of Vocabulary (continued) • Syllables • Majority of them make up general nominal and specific nominal • Overextension: Use of words in situations in which their meanings become extended • Gradually changes to their proper references as the child’s vocabulary and ability to classify objects develop Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 19

Development of Sentences (continued) • Types of telegraphic speech • Holophrases: Single words that express complex meanings • Two-word sentence - Shows understanding of syntax - Syntax: Guidelines of a language for placing words in order to form sentences Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 20

Views that Emphasize Nurture • Role of imitation • Children learn language by observation and imitation • Role of reinforcement • Changing frequencies of sound to reinforce the way adults speak and extinction of foreign sounds • Early vocabularies are acquired through shaping - Shaping: Gradual building of complex behavior through reinforcement of successive approximations to the target behavior Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 21

Brain Structures Involved in Language • Biological structures are based in the left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex for nearly all right-handed people • Aphasia: Disruption in the ability to understand or produce language • Broca’s aphasia: Caused by damage to Broca’s area and characterized by difficulty in speaking • Wernicke’s aphasia: Caused by damage to Wernicke’s area and characterized by: - Impaired comprehension of speech - Difficulty in producing the right word Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 22

The Critical Period • Children are most sensitive to language • Injuries to the left hemisphere of the brain, that controls language, can damage or destroy the ability to speak • In young children, left-hemisphere damage enables the development of language functions in the right hemisphere Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 23

Attachment: Bonds That Endure Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 24

Attachment • Affectional bond characterized by seeking closeness with another and distress upon separation • Separation anxiety: Fear of separation from a target of attachment Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 25

Patterns of Attachment Secure attachment • Mild distress at leave-takings and being readily soothed by reunion Insecure attachment • Avoiding caregiver, excessive clinging, or inconsistency • Avoidant attachment: Indifference to leave-takings by and reunions with an attachment figure • Ambivalent/resistant attachment: Distress at leave-takings and ambivalent behavior at reunions Disorganized/disoriented attachment • Dazed and contradictory behaviors toward an attachment figure Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 26

Establishing Attachment • Attachment is related to the quality of care • Secure infants have parents who are affectionate, cooperative, and predictable • Security is related to the infant’s temperament • Both parents can establish attachment • Stability of attachment • Remain constant for infants in a caring environment Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 27

Stages of Attachment Initial-preattachment phase • Birth to three months • Characterized by indiscriminate attachment Attachment-in-the-making phase • Three to four months of age • Characterized by preference for familiar figures Clear-cut attachment phase • Six to seven months of age • Characterized by intensified dependence on the primary caregiver, usually the mother Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 28

Names to Know • Konrad Lorenz • Harry Harlow • John Bowlby Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 29

When Attachment Fails Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 30

When Attachment Fails • Social deprivation • Children deprived of social stimulation have difficulty getting attached to people • Experiments with monkeys • Harlows’ study concluded that, just like monkeys, socially withdrawn children can make progress, if provided with younger playmates Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 31

Studies with Children • Children who received material needs, but lacked emotional support show withdrawal and depression symptoms • Age of the child contributes to how well the child can overcome social deprivation Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 32

CHILD ABUSE AND MALTREATMENT

Types of Child Maltreatment Physical abuse Sexual abuse Emotional abuse Physical neglect Emotional neglect Educational neglect Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 34

Child Abuse and Neglect • Unreported due to: • Inability to distinguish between discipline and abuse • Fear of embarrassing the family or legal consequences • Effects • High incidence of personal and social problems • Less securely attached to parents • Less intimate with peers and more aggressive, angry, and noncompliant than other children • Reduced self-esteem and school performance Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 35

Causes of Child Abuse • • Stress History of child abuse in the family Lack of adequate coping skills Unrealistic expectations of children Substance abuse Infants who are already in pain Disobedient, inappropriate, or unresponsive children more likely to be abused Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 36

Preventing Child Abuse • Report abuse to the authorities • Provide parenting training • Target high-risk groups such as poor, single teen mothers and provide parenting programs or home visitors for them • Present information about abuse and provide support for families • Have child abuse hotlines for private citizens • Mandated Reporting Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 37

AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) • Impairment in communication and social skills, and by repetitive, stereotyped behavior - Social deficits and stereotyped behavior without any significant cognitive or language delays Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 39

Autism • Characterized often by extreme aloneness, communication problems, preservation of sameness, and ritualistic behavior • May show mutism and echolalia • Mutism: Refusal to speak • Echolalia: Automatic repetition of sounds or words Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 40

Day Care Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 41

Daycare’s Positives and Negatives • Positives • Most infants are securely attached • Very friendly and play at high developmental levels • Better academic performance in elementary school • Negatives • More aggressive than home-reared children • Defiant and disobedient in kindergarten Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 42

Personality Development Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 43

Personality Development (continued) • Mirror technique - Infants begin to touch their own noses upon looking into the mirror at 18 months • Self-awareness • Affects the infant’s social and emotional development • Contributes to the development of self-conscious emotions Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 44

Temperament • Individual difference in style of reaction that is present early in life • • • Activity level Smiling and laughter Regularity in eating and sleep habits Approach and withdrawal Adaptability to new situations Intensity of responsiveness Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 45

Temperament (continued) • Stability of temperament • Moderate consistency in the development of temperament • Difficult children at risk of developing psychological disorders • Goodness of fit • Agreement between the parents’ expectations of a child and the child’s temperament Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 46

Gender Differences • Girls advance more rapidly in motor development in infancy than boys • Girls and boys are similar in social behaviors • Differentiation between boy and girl toys is made as early as 12 months old • Boys and girls are aware of genderappropriate behavior by 24 months Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 47

Adults’ Behavior toward Infants • Adults are more likely to offer girl babies a doll and offer a boy baby a hammer or football even when sex of baby is disguised • Fathers are more likely to encourage roughand-tumble-play with their sons • Infant girls are dressed in lace and pink while boys are dressed in blue or red Copyright © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. HDEV 4 | CH 5 48