5 Elasticity and Its Applications Elasticity We have
- Slides: 73
5 Elasticity and Its Applications
Elasticity • We have seen that – The quantity demanded of a consumer good is affected by • its price, the prices of other goods, buyers’ incomes, etc. – The quantity supplied of a good is affected by • its price, the prices of raw materials, technology, etc. • Elasticity is a measure of the strengths of these various effects
Elasticity = Responsiveness • Suppose there are two variables, x and y • The “x elasticity of y” is a measure of the effect on y of changes in x – when all other factors that affect y are unchanged • In other words, the “x elasticity of y” is a measure of the responsiveness of y to changes in x
Elasticity: definition • The “x elasticity of y” is the percent increase in y when there is a one percent increase in x – and all other factors that affect y are unchanged
Elasticity: examples • The price elasticity of demand is the percent increase in the quantity demanded of a commodity when there is a one percent increase in the price of the commodity – and all other factors that affect quantity demanded are unchanged
Elasticity: examples • The income elasticity of demand is the percent increase in the quantity demanded of a commodity when there is a one percent increase in the buyers’ income – and all other factors that affect quantity demanded are unchanged
Elasticity: examples • The cross-price elasticity of demand is the percent increase in the quantity demanded of a commodity when there is a one percent increase in the price of another commodity – and all other factors that affect quantity demanded are unchanged
Elasticity: examples • The price elasticity of supply is the percent increase in the quantity supplied of a commodity when there is a one percent increase in the price of the commodity – and all other factors that affect quantity supplied are unchanged
Elasticity • For each of the elasticities we have just seen, we need to know – how to measure it, and – what makes it high in some situations and low in other situations, and – why it is useful
PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND (P. E. D. )
THE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND • Price elasticity of demand is a measure of how strongly the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in the price of that good. See http: //www. ers. usda. gov/data-products/commodity-and-food-elasticities. aspx for various measures of elasticity of demand for various food products.
P. E. D. Computation • The price elasticity of demand is the percent increase in the quantity demanded of a commodity when there is a one percent increase in the price of the commodity – and all other factors that affect quantity demanded are unchanged
P. E. D. Computation • Suppose – the price of ice-cream increases by 10%, and – the quantity demanded decreases by 20%. • This is an increase of − 20% • P. E. D. = − (− 20)/10 = 2. • That is, a 1% change in the price will change the quantity demanded by 2%.
What does the P. E. D. depend on? • Which commodity will have the lower price elasticity of demand: – gasoline or movies? – insulin injections (for diabetes patients) or music downloads (on i. Tunes)? – alcoholic beverages in general or Miller beer? • A 10 percent increase in gasoline prices reduces gasoline consumption by about 2. 5 percent after a year and about 6 percent after five years. Why?
Determinants of Price Elasticity of Demand • P. E. D. of a consumer good tends to be higher… – if it has many close substitutes – if it is a luxury commodity • That is, if the good’s income elasticity of demand is high – if spending on the good is a large portion of total spending – if it is narrowly (rather than broadly) defined – if buyers are given more time to adjust to a price change
Income Elasticity of Demand • The income elasticity of demand is the percent increase in the quantity demanded of a commodity when there is a one percent increase in the buyers’ income – and all other factors that affect quantity demanded are unchanged
Computing Income Elasticity of Demand • Suppose: – income increases 10%, and – quantity demanded decreases 20%. Then – income elasticity of demand is -20/+10 = -2. • Note that I. E. D. can be positive, negative, or zero.
Normal Goods and Inferior Goods • Normal Goods: I. E. D. > 0 • Inferior Goods: I. E. D. < 0 • Higher income raises the quantity demanded for normal goods, but lowers the quantity demanded for inferior goods. • Examples
Necessities and Luxuries • When I. E. D. < 1, the good is called income inelastic or a necessity – Examples include food, fuel, clothing, utilities, and medical services. • When I. E. D. > 1, the good is called income elastic or a luxury – Examples include sports cars, furs, and expensive foods.
High Income Elasticity Implies High Price Elasticity • The effect of a change in the price of a good on its quantity demanded is the sum of: – The substitution effect, and – The income effect • See chapter 4 • The higher the I. E. D. , the bigger the income effect. Therefore, • The higher the I. E. D. , the higher the P. E. D. .
Low I. E. D. implies low P. E. D. Suppose the income elasticity of demand for Coke is positive, but low 2. Consumers feel richer… 1. When the price of Coke decreases… Clothes Coke Books Movies 3. Consumption of Coke increases, but only a little, because Coke’s I. E. D. is low 4. So, a decrease in the price of Coke leads to a small increase in the consumption of Coke, meaning that Coke’s P. E. D. is low Pepsi
High I. E. D. implies high P. E. D. Suppose the income elasticity of demand for Coke is positive and high 2. Consumers feel richer… 1. When the price of Coke decreases… Clothes Coke 3. Consumption of Coke increases by a big amount, because Coke’s I. E. D. is high 4. So, a decrease in the price of Coke leads to a big increase in the consumption of Coke, meaning that Coke’s P. E. D. is high Books Movies Pepsi
COMPUTING PERCENTAGES
Computing the Percentage of a Price Change—Usual Method Old Price New Price Increase % Increase $2. 00 $2. 20 – 2. 00 = $0. 20 [(2. 20 – 2. 00)/2. 00] × 100 = 10%
Computing the Percentage of a Quantity Change— Usual Method Old Quantity New Quantity Increase % Increase 10 8 8 – 10 = – 2 [(8 – 10)/10] × 100 = – 20%
Computing the Price Elasticity of Demand: Usual Method • The price of an ice cream cone increases from $2. 00 to $2. 20 • The amount you buy falls from 10 to 8 cones • What is your elasticity of demand?
Computing the Price Elasticity of Demand • But what do you do if you have to compute the P. E. D. from the demand schedule on the left? • Here you do not know whether the price increased from 2 to 4 or decreased from 4 to 2 • What do you do in this case? Price 2 4 Quantity Demanded 10 8
Computing the Percentage Change in Price Quantity • If the price (P) goes from 2 to 4 it is a 100% increase: [(4 – 2) / 2] × 100 = 100 2 10 • If P goes from 4 to 2 it is a 50% decrease: 4 8 [(2 – 4) / 4] × 100 = – 50 • So, in the PED formula should we use 100 or – 50 for the percentage increase in P? • After all, both answers seem logical!
Computing the Percentage Change in Price • If the price (P) goes from 2 to 4 it is a 100% increase: An acceptable compromise may be to [(4 – 2) / 2] × 100 = 100 divide, not by 2, not by • If P goes from 4 to 2 it is a 50% decrease: 4, but by the average of [(2 – 4) / 4] × 100 = – 50 2 and 4 • So, in the PED formula should we use 100 or – 50 for the percentage increase in P? • After all, both answers seem logical! Price Quantity Demanded 2 10 4 8
Computing the Percentage Change in Price: Midpoint Formula • A good compromise is the midpoint formula • Denote any one of the two rows of numbers as “new” and the other as “old” • Then compute: Price 2 4 Quantity Demanded 10 8 If the (2, 10)-row is “old”, the percent increase in P is (4 – 2)/3 × 100 = 66. 67. On the other hand, if the (4, 8)-row is “old”, the percent increase in P is (2 – 4)/3 × 100 = – 66. 67. Either way, the magnitude is the same.
Computing the Percentage Change in Quantity: Midpoint Formula • The percent increase in quantity can be computed in the same way • If the (2, 10)-row is “old”, the percent increase in Q is (8 – 10)/9 × 100 = – 22. 22 • if the (4, 8)-row is “old”, the percent increase in Q is (10 – 8)/9 × 100 = 22. 22 • Either way, the magnitude is the same Price Quantity Demanded 2 10 4 8
Computing the Price Elasticity of Demand • Therefore, P. E. D. = 22. 22 / 66. 66 = 1/3 Price Quantity Demanded 2 10 4 8
The Midpoint Method: A Better Way to Calculate Percentage Changes and Elasticities • The midpoint formula is preferable when calculating the price elasticity of demand because it gives the same answer regardless of the direction of the change.
Midpoint Formula: example • The price of an ice cream cone increases from $2. 00 to $2. 20 • The amount you buy falls from 10 to 8 cones • What’s your elasticity of demand? – use the midpoint formula
P. E. D. AND THE SHAPE OF THE DEMAND CURVE
Elastic, Unit-Elastic and Inelastic Demand • Demand can be – Inelastic – Unit-elastic – Elastic • … depending on the magnitude of the P. E. D.
Inelastic Demand: P. E. D. < 1 • Suppose: – Price changes by 10% – Quantity demanded changes by 5%. • % change in quantity is smaller than the % change in price • Here P. E. D. = 5/10 = 0. 5 < 1 • Demand is inelastic
Unit-Elastic Demand: P. E. D. = 1 • Suppose: – Price changes by 10% – Quantity demanded changes by 10%. • % change in quantity is equal to the % change in price • Here P. E. D. = 10/10 = 1 • Demand is unit-elastic
Elastic Demand: P. E. D. > 1 • Suppose: – Price changes by 10% – Quantity demanded changes by 30%. • % change in quantity is greater than the % change in price • Here P. E. D. = 30/10 = 3 > 1 • Demand is elastic
Computing the Price Elasticity of Demand: Example Price $5 4 0 Demand 50 100 Quantity Demand is price elastic
Perfectly Inelastic and Perfectly Elastic Demand • Perfectly Inelastic Demand – Quantity demanded does not respond at all to price changes. – P. E. D. = 0. • Perfectly Elastic Demand – Quantity demanded changes infinitely with any change in price. – P. E. D. = infinity.
The Variety of Demand Curves • Because P. E. D. measures how strongly quantity demanded responds to the price, it is closely related to the slope of the demand curve. • The higher the price elasticity of demand, the flatter the demand curve.
Figure 1 The Price Elasticity of Demand (a) Perfectly Inelastic Demand: Elasticity Equals 0 Price Demand $5 4 1. An increase in price. . . 0 100 Quantity 2. . leaves the quantity demanded unchanged.
Figure 1 The Price Elasticity of Demand (b) Inelastic Demand: Elasticity Is Less Than 1 Price $5 4 1. A 22% increase in price. . . Demand 0 90 100 Quantity 2. . leads to an 11% decrease in quantity demanded.
Figure 1 The Price Elasticity of Demand (c) Unit Elastic Demand: Elasticity Equals 1 Price $5 4 Demand 1. A 22% increase in price. . . 0 80 100 Quantity 2. . leads to a 22% decrease in quantity demanded. Copyright© 2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
Figure 1 The Price Elasticity of Demand (d) Elastic Demand: Elasticity Is Greater Than 1 Price $5 4 Demand 1. A 22% increase in price. . . 0 50 100 Quantity 2. . leads to a 67% decrease in quantity demanded.
Figure 1 The Price Elasticity of Demand (e) Perfectly Elastic Demand: Elasticity Equals Infinity Price 1. At any price above $4, quantity demanded is zero. $4 Demand 2. At exactly $4, consumers will buy any quantity. 0 3. At a price below $4, quantity demanded is infinite. Quantity
P. E. D. AFFECTS THE LINK BETWEEN PRICE AND SALES REVENUE
Total Revenue and the Price Elasticity of Demand • Total revenue (TR) is the amount paid by buyers (and, therefore, received by sellers) of a good. • It is computed as the price of the good times the quantity sold. TR = P x Q
Figure 2 Total Revenue Price $4 P × Q = $400 (revenue) P 0 Demand 100 Q Quantity
Elasticity and Total Revenue: Inelastic Demand • Suppose demand is inelastic • Specifically, suppose TR = P × Q +6% +10% - 4% Conclusion: When demand is inelastic, price and total revenue move in the same direction. – Price increases by 10%, and – Quantity demanded decreases by 4%.
Elasticity and Total Revenue: Elastic Demand • Suppose demand is elastic • Specifically, suppose TR = P × Q - 15% +10% - 25% Conclusion: When demand is elastic, price and total revenue move in opposite directions. – Price increases by 10%, and – Quantity demanded decreases by 25%.
Elasticity and Total Revenue: Unit-elastic Demand • Suppose demand is unitelastic • Specifically, suppose TR = P × Q No Change +10% - 10% Conclusion: When demand is unit-elastic, price has no effect on total revenue. – Price increases by 10%, and – Quantity demanded decreases by 10%.
Elasticity of a Linear Demand Curve • Note that demand can change from elastic to unit-elastic to inelastic as the price changes • That is, in addition to the other factors discussed before, P. E. D. also depends on the price
OTHER IMPORTANT ELASTICITIES
Cross Price Elasticity of Demand • The cross price elasticity of demand (C. P. E. D. ) measures the responsiveness of the quantity demanded of one good to changes in the price of some other good. • Suppose: – The price of Coke increases 2%, and – The consumption of Pepsi increases 20%. – The C. P. E. D. for Coke with respect to Pepsi is +20/+2 = +10.
Substitutes: C. P. E. D. > 0 • When the C. P. E. D. for one good with respect to another is positive, the two goods are called substitutes. • In the last slide’s example, the C. P. E. D. for Coke with respect to Pepsi was +10, which is positive. • This confirms our common-sense intuition that Coke and Pepsi are substitutes.
Complements: C. P. E. D. < 0 • When the C. P. E. D. for one good with respect to another is negative, the two goods are called complements. • Suppose: – the price of gasoline increases 50% – the sale of cars decreases 10% – The C. P. E. D. is -10/+50 = -0. 2, which is negative. • This is what one would expect, given our common-sense notion that gas and cars are complements.
THE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY • Price elasticity of supply is a measure of how strongly the quantity supplied of a good responds to a change in the price of that good.
Elasticity: examples • The price elasticity of supply is the percent increase in the quantity supplied of a commodity when there is a one percent increase in the price of the commodity – and all other factors that affect quantity supplied are unchanged
Figure 6 The Price Elasticity of Supply (a) Perfectly Inelastic Supply: Elasticity Equals 0 Price Supply $5 4 1. An increase in price. . . 0 100 Quantity 2. . leaves the quantity supplied unchanged.
Figure 6 The Price Elasticity of Supply (b) Inelastic Supply: Elasticity Is Less Than 1 Price Supply $5 4 1. A 22% increase in price. . . 0 100 110 Quantity 2. . leads to a 10% increase in quantity supplied.
Figure 6 The Price Elasticity of Supply (c) Unit Elastic Supply: Elasticity Equals 1 Price Supply $5 4 1. A 22% increase in price. . . 0 100 125 Quantity 2. . leads to a 22% increase in quantity supplied.
Figure 6 The Price Elasticity of Supply (d) Elastic Supply: Elasticity Is Greater Than 1 Price Supply $5 4 1. A 22% increase in price. . . 0 100 200 Quantity 2. . leads to a 67% increase in quantity supplied.
Figure 6 The Price Elasticity of Supply (e) Perfectly Elastic Supply: Elasticity Equals Infinity Price 1. At any price above $4, quantity supplied is infinite. $4 Supply 2. At exactly $4, producers will supply any quantity. 0 3. At a price below $4, quantity supplied is zero. Quantity
Determinants of Elasticity of Supply • The price elasticity of supply is high – if the technology enables sellers to change the amount of the good they produce. • Beach-front land has inelastic supply. • Books, cars, or manufactured goods have elastic supply. – if suppliers have time to respond to a price change • Supply is more elastic in the long run.
APPLICATIONS
THREE APPLICATIONS OF SUPPLY, DEMAND, AND ELASTICITY • Can good news for farming be bad news for farmers? • What happens to wheat farmers and the market for wheat when university agronomists discover a new wheat hybrid that is more productive than existing varieties?
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