3 1 Structure of the Human Brain Figure

3 -1: Structure of the Human Brain (Figure 3 -6) Teresa M. Mc. Devitt, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Child Development and Education Copyright © 2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

3 -2: Neurons in the Brain (Figure 3 -5) Teresa M. Mc. Devitt, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Child Development and Education Copyright © 2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

3 -3: Examples of Risk Factors for Healthy Neurological Development (Table 3 -1) Teresa M. Mc. Devitt, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Child Development and Education Copyright © 2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

5 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DARWINIAN EVOLUTION THEORY [FROM: MICHAEL SHERMER’S (2002) In Darwin’s Shadow: The life and Science of Alfred Russel Wallace. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, p. 207. ] • • • EVOLUTION: CHANGE (in behavior)THROUGH TIME. DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION: THE MODE OF EVOLUTION BY BRANCHING COMMON DESCENT. GRADUALISM: CHANGE (in behavior) IS SLOW, STEADY, STATELY. NATURA NON FACIT SALTUS. GIVEN ENOUGH TIME EVOLUTION CAN ACCOUNT FOR THE ORIGIN OF NEW SPECIES. MULTIPLICATION OF SPECIATION: EVOLUTION PRODUCES NOT JUST NEW SPECIES (behavior), BUT AN INCREASING NUMBER OF NEW SPECIES (behaviors). NATURAL SELECTION: THE MECHANISM OF EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE CAN BE SUBDIVIDED INTO FIVE STEPS: (SEE NEXT SLIDE).

FIVE STEPS OF NATURAL SELECTION • • • 1. POPULATIONS [behaviors] TEND TO INCREASE INDEFINITELY IN A GEOMETRIC RATIO. [FROM OBSERVATION] 2. IN A NATURAL ENVIRONMENT, HOWEVER, POPULATION [behavior] NUMBERS STABILIZE AT A CERTAIN LEVEL. [FROM OBSERVATION] THERE MUST BE A “STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE” SINCE NOT ALL ORGANISMS [behaviors] PRODUCED CAN SURVIVE. [FROM INFERENCE] THERE IS VARIATION IN EVERY SPECIES [behaviors]. [FROM OBSERVATION] IN THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE, THOSE VARIATIONS THAT ARE BETTER ADAPTED TO THE ENVIRONMENT LEAVE BEHIND MORE OFFSPRING THAN THE LESS WELL ADAPTED INDIVIDUALS, ALSO KNOWN AS DIFFERENTIAL REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS. [FROM INFERENCE]

BEHAVIORISTS’: BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF BEHAVIORISM • • PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING SHOULD APPLY EQUALLY TO DIFFERENT BEHAVIORS AND TO DIFFERENT SPECIES OF ANIMALS LEARNING PROCESSES CAN BE STUDIED MOST OBJECTIVELY WHEN THE FOCUS OF STUDY IS ON STIMULI AND RESPONSES. INTERNAL PROCESSES ARE LARGELY EXCLUDED FROM SCIENTIFIC STUDY LEARNING INVOLVES A BEHAVIOR CHANGE ORGANISMS ARE BORN AS BLANK SLATES (tabula rasa). LEARNING IS LARGELY THE RESULT OF ENVIRONMENTAL EVENTS. THE MOST USEFUL THEORIES TEND TO BE PARSIMONIOUS ONES.

Concept Map: Behavioral Approaches

Approaches to Learning

Social Cognitive Approaches to Learning SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO LEARNING Evaluating the Social Cognitive Approaches Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Observatio nal Learning Cognitive Behavior Approaches

Social Cognitive Approaches to Learning • Bandura’s social cognitive theory – Social cognitive theory – Reciprocal determinism model – Self-efficacy

Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism Model of Learning B Behavior P/C Person and cognitive factors E Environment

Social Cognitive Approaches to Learning • Observational learning – What is observational learning? – The classic Bobo doll study – Bandura’s contemporary model of observational learning • • Attention Retention Motor reproduction Reinforcement of incentive conditions

Social Cognitive Approaches to Learning • Cognitive behavior approaches and self-regulation – Cognitive behavior approaches • Self-instructional methods

Social Cognitive Approaches to Learning – Self-regulatory learning • A model of self-regulatory learning Self-Evaluation and Monitoring Goal Setting and Strategic Planning Monitoring Outcomes and Refining Strategies Putting a Plan into Action and Monitoring It

Self Regulated Learning: From Social/Cognitive Theory. Key people: Bandura; Schunk; Zimmerman. Key elements: • • Goal Setting Planning Self-motivation (intrinsic motivation) Attention control Application of learning strategies Self-monitoring Self-evaluation Self-reflection

General Assumptions of Cognitive Theories Some Learning Processes may be unique to human beings. Cognitive processes are the focus of study. Objective, systematic observations of people’s behavior should be the focus of scientific inquiry; however, inferences about unobservable mental processes can often be drawn from behavior. Individuals are actively involved in the learning process. Learning involves the formation of mental representations or associations that are not necessarily reflected in overt behavior changes.

Implications of Cognitive Theories Cognitive processes influence learning. As children grow, they become capable of increasingly more sophisticated thought. People organize things they learn. New information is most easily acquired when people can associate it with things they have already learned. People control their own learning.

Some key Cognitive theorists • • • Jean Piaget (French) Lev Vygotsky (RUSSIAN) Edward Tolman (American) Jerome Bruner (American) Kurt Lewin (German)

Kurt Lewin (From Alfred Marrow’s book) BH = f (P+E)

FOREIGN HULL VECTORS VALENCES PERSON B A R R I E R NEEDS ABILITIES PSYCHOLOGICAL LIFE SPACE - + G O A L R E G I O N

Concept Map: Chapter Eight Overview

The Cognitive Information. Processing Approach THE COGNITIVE INFORMATIONPROCESSING APPROACH Exploring the Information. Processing Approach Characteristics of the Information-Processing Approach

The Cognitive Information. Processing Approach • Exploring the informationprocessing approach – Cognitive psychology

The Cognitive Information. Processing Approach • Characteristics of the informationprocessing approach – Thinking – Change mechanisms – – Encoding Automaticity Strategy construction Transfer – Self-modification – Metacognition

Memory MEMORY What is Memory? Retrieval and Forgetting Encoding Storage

Memory • What is memory? ENCODING Getting information into memory STORAGE Retaining information over time RETRIEVAL Taking information out of storage

Memory • Encoding – Rehearsal – Deep processing • Levels of processing theory – Elaboration – Constructing images – Organization • Chunking

Memory • Storage – Memory’s time frames • Sensory memory • Short-term (working) memory – Memory span • Long-term memory

Key Ideas in Information Processing Theory I Sensation and Perception II Attention A. Distractibility decreases; sustained attention increases B. Attention becomes increasingly purposeful III Working Memory A. Processing speed increases B. Children acquire more effective cognitive processes C. The physical capacity of working memory may increase somewhat IV Long-Term Memory A. The amount of knowledge stored in long-term memory increases B. Knowledge becomes increasingly symbolic in nature C. Children’s knowledge about the world becomes increasingly integrated D. Children’s growing knowledge base facilitates more effective learning Teresa M. Mc. Devitt, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Child Development and Education Copyright © 2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

5 -1: A model of the human information processing system (Figure 5 -1) Teresa M. Mc. Devitt, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Child Development and Education Copyright © 2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Theory of Memory

Baddeley’s Model of Memory Visuospatial scratchpad Central executive Articulatory loop

Storage: Long-Term Memory’s Contents Long-term memory Nondeclarative (implicit) Declarative (explicit) Episodic memory Semantic memory

Memory • Storage – Content knowledge and how it is represented in long-term memory • Content knowledge • Network theories • Schema theories – Schema – Script

Memory • Retrieval and forgetting – Retrieval • • • Serial position effect Primacy effect Recency effect Encoding specificity principle Recall Recognition

Memory • Retrieval and forgetting – Forgetting • Cue-dependent forgetting • Interference theory • Decay theory

FOREIGN HULL VECTORS VALENCES PERSON B A R R I E R NEEDS ABILITIES PSYCHOLOGICAL LIFE SPACE - + G O A L R E G I O N

Abraham Maslow’s • Perspectives on motivation – The humanist perspective • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs – – – Physiological Safety Love and belongingness Esteem Self-actualization