3 1 2 3 Principles theories of learning

3. 1. 2. 3 Principles & theories of learning Learning objectives To understand the 3 stages of learning. To understand the learning curve and reason for plateau. To be able to describe how a coach can help a performer progress for a beginner to a expert. To understand theories of learning and how they impact on the performer and skill development.

Stages of learning Watch me What are the stages of learning a new skill?

Stages of learning Fitts and Posner (psychologists) proposed that learners pass through three phases of learning as their skills develop. 1 st Phase - The cognitive phase: This is the first phase of learning experienced by a beginner who tries to work out and understand what is required to perform a new movement.

Stages of learning It is a short phase during which a trial-and-error process is used to help develop an early understanding of the parts of the skill. Time is needed to think and to check movements. The coach might use manual and mechanical guidance and concentrate on extrinsic and positive feedback to offer encouragement and ensure improvement.

Stages of learning 2 nd Phase - The associative phase: This is often called the practice phase of learning. The learner compares his/her current level of performance with that of a top-level player. Long periods of practice and information from feedback is used to correct errors and perfect the skill.

Stages of learning During this phase the performer begins to build up a mental framework. Motor programmes are coded into the memory. Performers will use intrinsic feedback and begin to alter the level of skill. Verbal and visual guidance could be used. Think. Pair. Share - Think about your own experiences in sport. What stage of learning are you at?

Stages of learning 3 rd Phase - The autonomous phase: At this stage movements are perfected to the point where they are almost automatic. The player can concentrate on the finer details of the task and the performance is completed with maximum efficiency. This is a phase for experts, who must continue to practise if they want to remain at this top level.

Stages of learning Coaches can use strategies to help players to progress from the early cognitive phase to the final autonomous phase of learning. Learning leads to a permanent change in behaviour and movement patterns. However, performance is a temporary response to a situation and can still fluctuate.

The Learning Plateau Success rate When a novice is learning a closed skill, they will pass through four learning stages. See the learning curve graph below: Stage 3 Time Stage 4

The Learning Plateau Stage 1: The novice is working out the subroutines of the task. Improvements are rapid, but movements are jerky and uncoordinated. Use of models and an initial look at techniques. This cognitive stage demands high attention and concentration.

The Learning Plateau Stage 2: There is a rapid increase in the rate of learning as the performer begins to master the task. The performance is more fluent and executed with enthusiasm. The success achieved provides reinforcement and motivation.

The Learning Plateau Stage 3: The performer hits a learning plateau and there is little or no improvement in performance. The plateau effect could be a consequence of the performer reaching the limit of his/her ability, or becoming bored with performing the same task.

The Learning Plateau Stage 4: There is a reduction in the level of performance, possibly due to fatigue or loss of motivation. The initial drive to succeed has been lost, a concept called drive reduction.

Cognitive theories of learning (Gestalt) This theory suggests that a performer learns by thinking about and understanding what is required of them rather than connecting stimuli and responses (Insight learning) i. e. A basketball player who has the zone defence explained to them will understand when it is necessary to play this tactic in a game.

Cognitive theories of learning (Gestalt) The learner is involved in the process by absorbing information form various sources to understand the ‘whole picture’ Whole approach Problem Solving Cognitive Theory Experience/Insight Understanding

Cognitive theories of learning (Gestalt) This cognitive theory supports the whole practice teaching method rather than progressive-part practice. Playing the game and learning along the way is seen as more effective than simply learning the skills in isolation.

Observational learning (Bandura) Sports coaches can use the fact that significant behaviour is often copied by using strategies to ensure that the learner copies desired behaviours (social learning) Behaviour is more likely to be repeated if it is reinforced with success, particularly if it is a powerful image performed by a significant other/role model.

Observational learning (Bandura) Bandura’s observational model explains how new skills are learnt through four processes. Demonstration Attention Retention Motor Reproduction Motivation

Observational learning (Bandura) The 4 main principles of Bandura’s model are the following: Attention: The learner must be attracted to the demonstration. Cues should be used to highlight key points.

Observational learning (Bandura) Retention: Once the performer has accepted a new skill, the coach must make sure that it is stored. The information should be broken down into small ‘chunks’ so that it can be processed by the shortterm memory. Practice and repetition must take place to ensure that the skill is learned thoroughly.

Observational learning (Bandura) Motor Reproduction: The coach should make sure that the player has the necessary coordination and power in the arms and shoulders to make the pass.

Observational learning (Bandura) Motivation: The learner is more likely to continue to practise if they are motivated. The coach can motivate players by offering positive reinforcement in the form of feedback or rewards. Most sports governing bodies have award schemes for young players who can successfully demonstrate specific skills.

Operant Conditioning (Behaviourism) Operant conditioning (Skinner) involves shaping the environment to manipulate behaviour and receiving rewards or reinforcement for those actions. Operant conditioning is learnt by trial and error. If the response is correct then performers are motivated to repeat it. If the response is incorrect they will be motivated to change it. e. g. a golfer who hits a tee shot left will adjust their next tee shot to improve the outcome.

Operant Conditioning (Behaviourism) Operant conditioning is commonly used in teaching motor skills and works on the principle that actions are made stronger by repetition. A coach can accelerate the trial-and-error learning process by using strategies to: • Make correct responses stronger. • De-direct incorrect responses. Think. Pair. Share - Think about your own experiences in sport. Do you like this way of learning? Is it effective?

Operant Conditioning (Behaviourism) Positive reinforcement of successful behaviours will strengthen the S-R bond. This is the link between a stimulus and a certain response. We learn by associating the correct response with a stimulus. e. g. in tennis if an opponent hits a high lob the correct response is a smash shot. This S-R bond can be promoted by using the right approach in training.

Operant Conditioning (Behaviourism) The strategies used to strengthen the S-R bond: • Use positive reinforcement - Praise after the correct response • Allow early success – At first easy targets will ensure success. Initial success develops confidence in the performer. • Use mental rehearsal - Going over the performance in the mind helps to develop an automatic response to the stimulus. • Practise the task as a whole - The coach should allow the performer to practise the skill in its entirety in order to promote fluency in performance.

Operant Conditioning (Behaviourism) Incorrect actions can be weakened so that they are eliminated by: • Use negative reinforcement - If the performer begins to make mistakes a coach withdraws praise. • Use punishment when actions are incorrect - Coaches should use punishment carefully to avoid lowering the player's confidence while at the same time trying to prevent repetition of the unwanted response. Punishments could be: booked, penalised or dropped.

Social Development Theory (Vygotsky) This theory suggests learning takes place through social encounters particularly in the presence of adults or experienced others. Constructivism refers to the learners ability to construct knowledge through active engagement with their environment.

Apply it! What has stuck with you? Using relevant examples, explain the learning curve. Describe the 3 stages of learning. Theories of learning What is meant by the Social Learning theory? Explain Operant Conditioning?

Practice it! Exam questions 1. A coach may use different approaches to improve the team’s performance. Explain the principles of insight learning and discuss its effectiveness when developing skills. [8 marks]

Practice it! Exam questions 2. Explain the factors that can influence the effectiveness of attention, retention and motor production in observational learning. [4 marks]

Practice it! Marks Scheme: 1. AO 1 – Knowledge Principles of insight learning are identified and described, eg theory aims to develop a performer’s learning by understanding the relationship between the sub-routines or different factors that may influence the whole problem rather than learning specific movement patterns. AO 2 – Application Key principles and terms are explained with their impact on learning, eg practices will involve the use of techniques designed to allow the performer to think about their response and modify their actions based on previous experience and the situation at the time. For example, a games player will evaluate the situation and decide on a specific pass depending on the position of team mates, the opposition etc. rather than simply complete a pass because they have been conditioned or trained to do so. AO 3 – Analysis Linked factors evaluating the effectiveness of operant conditioning (developed statements), eg it is effective because the performer is able to modify their actions without the need for specific input from the coach because it allows performers to develop their own tactics/strategies rather than rely on the coach. It can be considered ineffective because the performers/team may not have the ability to think for themselves to develop a solution or because it may be too time consuming when developing skills.

Practice it! Marks Scheme: 2. Attention A. How attractive/successful/powerful or if action has actual benefits/ functional/peer/role model/significant other B. Demonstration can be seen/is accurate/highlight key areas of the skill/details/cues Retention C. Can the observer remember/keep the skill in memory/recall/mental image D. Demonstration is meaningful/ relevant/realistic succinct and clear/ use mental rehearsal Motor production E. Performer has the physical capability/abilities/skills to complete the task F. Immediate opportunity to practice/break down complex skills/ show progression