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A. distichus perches on fence posts and other sunny surfaces. A. insolitus usually perches on shady branches. A. ricordii A. insolitus A. aliniger A. distichus A. christophei A. cybotes A. etheridgei © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 3

Experiment Chthamalus Balanus High tide Chthamalus realized niche Balanus realized niche Ocean Low tide Results High tide Chthamalus fundamental niche Ocean © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Low tide 4

G. fuliginosa G. fortis Percentages of individuals in each size class Beak depth © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 60 Los Hermanos 40 20 0 60 Daphne 40 20 0 G. fuliginosa, allopatric G. fortis, allopatric Sympatric 60 Santa María, San Cristóbal populations 40 20 0 16 8 10 12 14 Beak depth (mm) 5

(a) Cryptic coloration Canyon tree frog (b) Aposematic coloration Poison dart frog (c) Batesian mimicry: A harmless species mimics a harmful one. Nonvenomous (d) Müllerian mimicry: Two unpalatable hawkmoth larva species mimic each other. Venomous green parrot snake © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Cuckoo bee Yellow jacket 6

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(a) Ants (genus Pseudomyrmex) in acacia tree © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. (b) Area cleared by ants around an acacia tree 8

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Number of plant species (a) Salt marsh with Juncus (foreground) © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 8 6 4 2 0 (b) With Juncus Without Juncus 10

A B C D Community 1 A: 25% B: 25% C: 25% D: 25% © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Community 2 A: 80% B: 5% C: 5% D: 10% 11

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Quaternary consumers: carnivores Tertiary consumers: carnivores Secondary consumers: carnivores Primary consumers: herbivores and zooplankton Primary producers: plants and phytoplankton © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 13

Humans Smaller toothed whales Baleen whales Crabeater seals Birds Leopard seals Fishes Sperm whales Elephant seals Squids Carnivorous plankton Copepods Krill Phytoplankton © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 14

Experiment Number of species present Results 20 15 10 5 0 With Pisaster (control) Without Pisaster (experimental) 1963’ 64 ’ 65 ’ 66 ’ 67 ’ 68 ’ 69 ’ 70 ’ 71 ’ 72 ’ 73 Year © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 15

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Number of taxa 35 30 25 20 15 10 0. 9 1. 0 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 1. 4 1. 5 1. 6 1. 7 1. 8 1. 9 2. 0 Index of disturbance intensity (log scale) © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 17

(a) Soon after fire © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. (b) One year after fire 18

1941 1 Pioneer stage 1907 1860 Glacier Bay 2 Dryas stage Alaska 1760 4 Spruce stage © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 0 5 10 15 Kilometers 3 Alder stage 19

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Vertebrate species richness (log scale) 200 100 50 10 0 © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 500 1, 000 1, 500 Potential evapotranspiration (mm/yr) 2, 000 21

Number of plant species (log scale) Results 400 200 100 50 25 10 100 103 104 105 106 Area of island (hectares) (log scale) © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 22

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