1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Copyright 2003 by

1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

8 -2 8 Exploratory Designs: In. Depth Interviews and Focus Groups 1234 0001 897251 00000 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 C H A P T E R Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Value of Qualitative Research Information 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù Qualitative information is great to capture when a decision-maker is faced with a problem or opportunity which can’t be adequately resolved with a secondary data scan. ù Qualitative research techniques provide the research team with wonderful “first-hand” insights into problem situations. ù Qualitative data often goes a long way toward clarifying management’s research priorities. ù The Internet, and our propensity to use “chat rooms” has changed the method by which in-depth interviews and focus groups are conducted – resulting in more “open” commentary and greater efficiency in retrieving data from respondents in a target population. 8 -3 Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Value of Qualitative Research (cont. ) ù Background information for developing: 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù Questions ù Hypothesis ù Establish research priorities ù Soft data structure to be based on descriptive studies of : ù Who? ù What? ù Where? ù When? ù How many? ù How much? ù How often? Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Qualitative & Quantitative Research Methods 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Factors/Characteristics Qualitative Methods Research Goals/Objectives Discovery and identification of new ideas, thoughts, feelings; preliminary insights on and understanding of ideas and objects Validation of facts, estimates, relationships, predictions Type of Research Normally exploratory designs Descriptive and causal designs Type of Questions Open-ended, semistructured, unstructured, deep probing Mostly structured Time of Execution Relatively short time frames Usually significantly longer time frames 8 -4 a Quantitative Methods Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Qualitative & Quantitative Research Methods 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Factors/Characteristics Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods Representativeness Small samples, limited to the sampled respondents Large samples, normally good representation of target populations Type of Analyses Debriefing, subjective, content, interpretive, semiotic analyses Statistical, descriptive, causal predictions and relationships Researcher Skills Interpersonal communications, observations, interpretive skills Scientific, statistical procedure, and translation skills; and some subjective interpretive skills Generalizability of Results Very limited; only preliminary insights and understanding Usually very good; inferences about facts, estimates of relationships 8 -4 b Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Guidelines for Using Qualitative Research Methodologies 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Qualitative research methods are appropriate when decision makers or researchers are ù In the process of correctly identifying a business problem or opportunity situation or establishing information requirements. ù Interested in obtaining some preliminary insights into the motivation, emotional, attitudinal, and personality factors that influence marketplace behaviors. ù In the process of building theories and models to explain marketplace behaviors or relationships between two or more marketing constructs. ù Attempting to develop reliable and valid scale measurements for investigating specific market factors, consumer qualities (e. g. , attitudes, emotional feelings, preferences, beliefs, perceptions) and behavioral outcomes. ù Trying to determine the preliminary effectiveness of their marketing strategies on actual marketplace behaviors. ù Interested in new-product or service development or repositioning current product or service images. 8 -5 Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Pros and Cons of Qualitative Research Methods 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Advantages of Qualitative Methods Economical and timely data collection Richness of the data Accuracy of recording marketplace behaviors Preliminary insights into building models and scale measurements 8 -6 Disadvantages of Qualitative Methods Lack of generalizability Inability to distinguish small differences Lack of reliability and validity Difficulty finding welltrained investigators, interviewers, and observers Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Shortcomings of Qualitative Research 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù Tendency for marketing managers to use the results without recognizing their full limitations ù For the most part, findings are not statistically supported ù Findings are exploratory ù Moderator plays a critical role and should be involved in evaluation of study’s results Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Questioning Techniques in Qualitative Research ù Experience Survey: 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù Getting information from knowledgably people. ù Protocol Interviews: ù Ask a person verbally express about his/her purchasing decision making process. ù Projective Interviewing Techniques: ù Several qualitative questioning techniques to get information about sensitive or confidential issues. It may be used motivation area as follows: ù ù ù Word Association. Sentence completion. Picture Tests. Cartoon Tests. Role Playing or Third Person Interviews. Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Depth Interviews 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Unstructured, one-on-one conversations between highly skilled interviewer and a member of a target population. In certain cases, depth interviews have proven to be better at assessing beliefs and attitudes than focus group discussions. ù ù ù No peer pressure and more confidential. Most interviews are highly unstructured interviews, allowing respondents to freely float from one issue to the next. Other interviews are highly structured interviews in which the interviewer uses checklists to cover narrowly focused topics. Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Requirements for Effective Depth Interviews 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù ù ù Allow between a half hour and two hours for each session Screen each respondent carefully Make sure the interviewer is capable Use a tape or video recorder Make the interview setting comfortable Provide rewards for participation Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Advantages of Depth Interviews 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù Respondents may feel more comfortable discussing issues with just one person ù One-on-one conversations are often much more detailed and revealing than group discussions ù Interviews are much easier to schedule ù Can handle more complex topics Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Disadvantages of Depth Interviews 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù ù ù Inability to interact with others Cost of implementation Interviewers may not be reliable Interviewers’ energy levels tend to deplete rapidly Interviews can lack consistency and thus reliability Lack statistical validity Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

In-Depth Interviewing 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù Face-to-face setting. ù Collection of both attitudinal and behavioral data. ù Use probing questions as the mechanism to get more data on the topic. ù Objectives of In-Depth Interviewing: ù To discover preliminary insights of what the subject thinks or believes about the topic of concern or why the subject exhibits certain behaviors. ù To obtain unrestricted and detailed comments that include feelings, beliefs, or opinions that can help better understand the different elements of the subject’s thoughts and the reasons why they exist. ù To have the respondent communicate as much detail as possible about his or her knowledge and behavior toward a given topic or object. 8 -7 Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

In-Depth Interviewing (cont. ) ù Skills required to conduct in-depth interviewing: 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù Interpersonal communication skills. ù Listening skills. ù Advantages of in-depth interviews: ù Face to face flexibility on a variety of topics. ù Opportunity to collect highly regarded data ù Disadvantages of in-depth interviews: ù Data structures tend to lack generalizability and reliability. ù Respondents bias, fatigue or interviewer error. Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Focus Groups 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 A qualitative research technique in which a skilled moderator leads a small group of participants in an unstructured discussion about a particular topic. When focus groups are performed online, respondents are recruited either by telephone or e-mail and must log onto a Web site at a specific time to participate in the study. An off-shoot of online focus groups are bulletin board focus groups, in which participants are involved with a study for a four- or five-day period to allow them to reflect and develop their thoughts. Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Focus Group Research (cont. ) ù 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù 8 -8 Nature of focus group interviews: ù Small group ù Professional moderator ù Provide as much information in two hours. ù Unstructured in questioning and topic. ù Rely upon group dynamics. Focus Group Objectives: ù To provide data for defining and redefining marketing problems. ù To identify specific hidden information requirements. ù To provide data for better understanding the results from other quantitative survey studies. ù To reveal consumers’ hidden needs, wants, attitudes, feelings, behaviors, perceptions, and motives regarding services, products, or practices. ù To generate new ideas about products, services, or delivery methods. ù To discover new constructs and measurement methods. ù To help explain changing consumer preferences. Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Requirements for Effective Focus Group Implementation 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù ù ù ù 6 to 12 participants Careful screening of participants Homogeneous participants in terms of characteristic under study Relaxed atmosphere Room with one-way mirror and audio- and video-recording capabilities Session duration between one and two hours Trained moderator Compensation for participation Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Use of Focus Groups 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù ù ù ù ù Generate information for questionnaires Assess needs Clarify promotional wording Find what customers consider when making decisions Recruit new members for an organization Test existing programs Follow-up to a mail survey Understand an organization’s image Assess products Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Advantages of Focus Group Research 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù ù ù Can observe respondents Flexible Controllable Group interaction Openness of such gatherings motivates participants to be honest and direct ù Opportunity for quick execution Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Disadvantages of Focus Group Research 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù ù Lack of scientific validity Prone to bias Can give marketing managers a false sense of security Difficulty in measuring the results Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Developing a Focus Group: The Process 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Phase 1: Planning the Focus Group Study This is the most critical phase. Researchers must have an understanding of the purpose of the study, a precise definition of the problem, and specific data requirements. Key decisions focus on who the appropriate participants would be; how to select and recruit respondents; what size the focus group should be; and where to have the sessions. Selecting and motivating the participants, and incentives to join the group. Decide the number of sessions and locations 8 -9 a Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Developing a Focus Group: The Process (cont. ) 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Phase 2: Conducting the Focus Group Discussions One of the key players in this phase is the focus group moderator. To ensure a successful interactive session, the moderator’s role and pertinent characteristics must be clearly understood by everyone involved. A necessary activity in this phase is the development of a moderator’s guide that outlines the topics, questions, and subquestions that will be used in the session. The actual focus group session should be structured with beginning, main, and closing sections. Moderator’s guide should be prepared for each session. Opening, introductory, transition, critical and ending questions should be prepared 8 -9 b Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Developing a Focus Group: The Process (cont. ) 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Phase 3: Analyzing and Reporting the Results After the actual session is completed and if the sponsoring client’s representatives are present, the researcher should conduct a debriefing analysis with all the key players involved to compare notes. The researcher should conduct a content analysis on the raw data obtained from the participants during the interviewing session and write a formal report that communicates the findings. Key to the researcher here is to remember who will be the reading audience, the purpose of the report, and the nature of reporting the results as well as an appropriate report style format. 8 -9 c Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Rules of Thumb for Participant Selection 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 General Rule Factors Description of Rule Guidelines Specify exact selection criteria Interacting with the decision maker, the researcher needs to identify, as precisely as possible, all the desired characteristics of the group members. Maintain control of the selection process The researcher must maintain control of the selection process. A screening mechanism that contains the key demographic or socioeconomic characteristics must be developed and used to ensure consistency in the selection process. In those situations where the researcher allows someone else to do the selection, precise instructions and training must be given to that individual. 8 -10 a Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Rules of Thumb for Participant Selection 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 General Rule Factors Description of Rule Guidelines Beware of potential selection biases Selection bias tends to be overlooked by researchers and decision makers alike. Biases can develop in subtle ways and seriously erode the quality of the data collected. Beware of participants picked from memory, or because they expressed an interest or concerns about the topic, or because they are clones of the person doing the selection. Incorporate randomization Whenever possible, randomize the process. It will help ensure a nonbiased cross section of prospective participants. This will work only if the pool of respondents meets the established selection criteria. 8 -10 b Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Rules of Thumb for Participant Selection 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 General Rule Factors Description of Rule Guidelines Check respondent’s knowledge and experience For any given topic, prospective participants may differ in knowledge and experience. Lack of knowledge may directly affect respondents’ abilities to engage in spontaneous topical discussions. Keep in mind that no process is perfect Researchers have to make the best choices they can with the knowledge they have at the time of selection. The process may overlook certain aspects of the problem and inadvertently neglect individuals with unique points of view. 8 -10 c Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

A Screener Questionnaire: An Example 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 1. Do you or any member of your immediate household work for a research firm, advertising agency, or a firm that produces or markets performing arts programs or events? (___) Yes [THANK THE PERSON AND TERMINATE AND TALLY] (___) No [CONTINUE] 2. Have you attended a performing arts event in the past month? (___) Yes [CONTINUE] (___) No [THANK THE PERSON AND TERMINATE AND TALLY] 3. Are you a permanent residence of Summit County? (___) Yes [CONTINUE] (___) No [THANK THE PERSON AND TERMINATE AND TALLY] 8 -11 a Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

A Screener Questionnaire: An Example 4. 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 5. Are you currently employed full-time or part-time outside the home? (___) Full-time [CONTINUE] (___) Part-time [THANK THE PERSON AND TERMINATE AND TALLY] (___) Not currently employed [THANK THE PERSON AND TERMINATE AND TALLY] Please stop me when I come to the age category to which you belong? (___) Under 20 [THANK THE PERSON AND TERMINATE AND TALLY] (___) 21 to 35 [RECRUIT AT LEAST 12] (___) 36 to 50 [RECRUIT AT LEAST 12] (___) 51 to 65 [RECRUIT AT LEAST 12] (___) Over 65 [THANK THE PERSON AND TERMINATE AND TALLY] 8 -11 b Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Important Traits of a Focus Group Moderator 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 The following descriptions represent some of the important traits that a researcher must consider in the selection of an excellent moderator for the focus group session: 1. The person must be well trained in interpersonal communications and have excellent listening, observation, and interpretive skills. 2. The moderator must display professional mannerisms and personality, have a good memory for names, create positive group dynamics and a comfort zone for spontaneous and interactive dialogue. 3. The moderator must be comfortable and familiar with group dynamics and processes, and must be able to exercise mild, unobtrusive control over participants. 4. The moderator must have good understanding and background knowledge of the specified topics and questions and the ability to guide the participants from one topic to the next. 8 -12 a Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Important Traits of a Focus Group Moderator 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 5. The person must be well trained in asking follow-up probing questions, and must demonstrate respect and sensitivity for the participants and their expressed opinions and feelings. 6. The moderator must be able to communicate clearly and precisely both in writing and verbally, and must be objective, self-disciplined, and focused. 7. The person should exhibit a friendly, courteous, enthusiastic, and adaptive personality, along with a sense of humor. 8. The person should be experienced in focus group research. 9. The moderator must have a quick mind capable of noting new ideas that come from the group. 10. The moderator must know how and when to bring closure to one topic and move the discussion to the next. 8 -12 b Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Discussion Guide: An Example 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 II. WARMUP [Use opening question format. ] Tell us your name and one or two things about yourself. [Ask this of each participant. ] (Build group dynamics and comfort zone among group members. ) 8 -13 a Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Discussion Guide: An Example III. INTRODUCE FIRST TOPIC 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 [Use an introductory format. ] “FROM YOUR VIEWPOINT, TO WHAT EXTENT DO YOU ENJOY ATTENDING PERFORMING ART PROGRAMS AND/OR ENTERTAINMENT EVENTS? ” Probe for: a. Types of programs and events that have been attended in b. 8 -13 b to see the past and would attend in the future. Types of programs and events most preferred Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Discussion Guide: An Example IV. SECOND MAJOR TOPIC 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 [Use a critical question format. ] Now I want you to think about how people make their decisions to attend performing arts events. “WHAT PERFORMING ARTS/ENTERTAINMENT FEATURES DO PEOPLE DEEM IMPORTANT IN DECIDING TO ATTEND A PROGRAM OR EVENT? ” Probe for: a. Detail and clarification of features. b. Understanding of importance of identified 8 -13 c features. Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Discussion Guide: An Example V. SPECIFIC DESIGN FEATURES 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 [Use a critical question format. ] Now think about the facilities used to present performing arts programs and events. “WHAT FACTORS SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN FACILITY STRUCTURE DESIGN? ” outdoor events for the 8 -13 d Probe for: a. Specific design features and why. b. Thoughts and feelings about indoor versus c. event capabilities. Types of protection features for outdoor audience, the performers. [Use transition question format to move to Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

How To Analyze A Focus Group 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Analysis/Interpretive Factors Description and Comments Consider the words Thought must be given to both the words used by the participants and the meanings of those words. Because there will be a variety of words and phrases used by the group members, the researcher will have to determine the degree of similarity and classify them accordingly. It should be remembered that editing messy quotations is a difficult but necessary task. Consider the context The researcher will have to gain an understanding of the context in which participants expressed key words and phrases. The context includes the actual words as well as their tone and intensity (voice inflection). It must be remembered that nonverbal communication (body language) can also provide meaningful bits of data worth analyzing. 8 -14 a Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

How To Analyze A Focus Group 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Analysis/Interpretive Factors Description and Comments Consider the frequency of comments In most situations, some of the topics presented in the session will be discussed by more participants (extensiveness) and some comments made more often (frequency) than others. The researcher should not assume that extensiveness and frequency of comments are directly related to their importance. Consider the intensity of comments Sometimes group members will talk about specific aspects of a topic with passion or deep feelings. While left undetected in transcripts alone, audio- or videotapes can uncover the intensity factor by changes in tone, talking speed, and emphasis placed on certain words or phrases. 8 -14 b Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

How To Analyze A Focus Group 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Analysis/Interpretive Description and Comments Factors Consider the specificity of responses 8 -14 c Those responses that are associated with some emotional firsthand experience probably are more intense than responses that are vague and impersonal. For example, “I feel that the new Mc. Donald’s Mc. Arch burger is a ripoff because I ate one and it tasted just terrible, especially at the price they are charging, ” should be given more weight than “The new Mc. Arch burger does not taste very good, considering what it costs. ” Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

How To Analyze A Focus Group 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Analysis/Interpretive Factors Description and Comments Consider the big picture Because data from focus groups come in many different forms (words, body language, intensity, etc. ), the researcher needs to construct an aggregate theme or message of what is being portrayed. Painting a bigger picture of what group members are actually saying can provide preliminary insights into how consumers view the specified product, service, or program. Caution should be used when trying to quantify the data. Use of numbers can inappropriately convey the impression that the results can be projected to a target population, which is not within the capabilities of qualitative data. 8 -14 d Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Key Components of a Focus Group Report 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Components of the Report Description and Comments Cover page The front cover should include the title, the names of people receiving or commissioning the report, the names of the researchers, and the date the report is submitted. Executive summary A brief, well-written executive summary should describe why the focus group session was conducted and list the major insights and recommendations. It should be limited to two pages and be able to stand alone. Table of contents This section provides the reader with information on how the report is organized and where various parts can be located. (It is optional for short reports. ) Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 8 -15 a

Key Components of a Focus Group Report 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Components of the Report Description and Comments Statement of the problem, critical questions, and methods This section describes the purpose of the study and includes a brief description of the focus interviews, the number of focus group sessions, the methods of selecting participants, and the number of people included in each session. Results and findings The results are most often organized by critical questions or overall ideas. The results can be presented in a number of ways using bulleted lists or narrative formats, listing raw data, summarizing the discussion, or using an interpretative approach. 8 -15 b Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Key Components of a Focus Group Report 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Components of the Report Description and Comments Recommendations This optional section is not automatically included in all focus group reports. The recommendations suggest what might be done with the results. Appendix The appendix should include any additional materials that might be helpful to the reader. Most often a copy of the moderator’s guide, screening form, or other relevant material would go into the appendix. 8 -15 d Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Key Components of a Focus Group Report 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Components of the Report Description and Comments Summary of themes Statements in this section are not limited to specific questions but rather connect several questions into a larger picture. Limitations and alternative explanations This section can be placed within the results section, if it is brief. Limitations reflect those aspects of the study that reduce the application of the findings of affect different interpretations of he findings. 8 -15 c Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Focus Group Research ù Advantages: 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù Respondents can introduce new Ideas. ù Explain underlying reasons and behaviors. ù Client can participate behind a one-way glass window. ù Unlimited number of topics may be covered. ù Special group of people such as doctors, lawyers may be questioned. ù Disadvantages: ù Lack of representativeness and low generalizability. ù It is difficult to substantiate data reliability. ù Data can be subjectively interpreted by moderator or client. ù High cost of participants ($200 -800). Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Benefits of Hosting A Group Online 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Ø Quicker turn-around times for data acquisition. Ø Quicker turn-around times for transcript production. Ø Less bias on the part of moderators and participants. Ø More moderator control. Ø Easy access for participants, moderators, and the client. 8 -16 Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Benefits of Traditional Focus Groups Over Online Focus Groups 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù Extremely difficult to be an effective moderator and establish authority from behind a computer screen. ù Group interaction is lost behind a computer screen. ù Impossible to address nonverbal reactions in an online focus group. ù Much more security in a traditional focus group than in the online version. ù Much more effective to show stimuli to the participants in a live setting than in an online focus group. Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Projective Techniques 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Provide verbal or visual stimuli that encourage respondents to reveal unconscious feelings and attitudes. ù ù ù Subjects are allowed to project their perceptions and feelings on to some other person or object— or in some other way are allowed to “depersonalize” their responses. Used to tap the subconscious minds of consumers. Most consist of vague or ambiguous stimuli which respondents are required to describe, revealing their underlying (true) thoughts and feelings. Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Types of Projective Techniques 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù Word Association: Researcher says a word or term and the participant is to respond with the first word that comes to mind. ù Picture Interpretation: Depicts abstract visual stimuli to help respondents describe thoughts and feelings that would not emerge otherwise. ù Thematic Apperception Test ( or TAT) is a picture interpretation method that has respondents describe what is going on in pictures and what will happen as a result of the situation. ù Sentence Completion: Researchers present a series of incomplete sentences and ask respondents to complete them. Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Types of Projective Techniques – cont’d 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù Third-Person Technique and Role-Playing: ù Third Person Technique: Researchers ask participants to answer questions for a third person such as a neighbor or an acquaintance, instead of themselves. ù Role-Playing: Researchers ask participants to play the role of someone else in a particular situation. The responses may be verbal or nonverbal. ù Cartoon Technique: Researchers show cartoon characters in a particular situation and ask respondents to describe what the characters are doing and explain the situation depicted. Blank “bubbles” appear above the cartoon characters, and respondents write what the characters would say in the bubbles. Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Disadvantages of Projective Techniques 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù Low reliability (subjective scoring) ù Low validity ù Lack of substantiating evidence to support theory that individuals project their own feelings onto ambiguous stimuli ù Require considerable training to administer, score, and interpret data ù Scoring is time-consuming and complex Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Observation Techniques 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 Methods for gathering data by watching test subjects without interacting with them. ù Direct Observation: Researchers watch a behavior as it occurs and report what they see. ù Unobtrusive or Disguised Observation: Subject does not know he/she is being observed. ù Obtrusive or Undisguised Observation: Subject knows he/she is being observed. ù Indirect Observation: Researchers observe the results of a behavior. Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Structured and Unstructured Observation 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù Structured Observation: Observers record only certain well-defined behaviors, typically on a checklist or standardized form. ù Unstructured Observation: Observers judge whether or not observed behaviors are important enough to record. Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Human and Mechanical Observation 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù Human Observation: Performed by an individual designated to observe behavior. ù Mechanical Observation: Uses a nonhuman device, such as a camera, Nielsen’s people-meters, eye movement recorders, voicepitch analyzers, and scanners to record observations. Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Types of Observation Research 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù Personal Observation ù Mechanical Observation ù Audit: Researchers examine pertinent records or conduct inventory analyses of items under investigation. ù Pantry audit - Inventory of items in a household. ù Content Analysis: Examines the content of a communication vehicle to determine whether a study inference is valid. ù Physical-Trace Analysis: Uses evidence or “traces” of individuals that were left behind to understand past behaviors. Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Advantages of Observation Research 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù ù Researcher is collecting observed data Reduction or elimination of recall error Can obtain data from those unable to communicate in written/oral form May be no better way to gather information than through observation Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Disadvantages of Observation Research 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù Findings are limited to those observed ù Usually do not examine motives for or feelings toward particular behaviors ù Subjectivity of the observer ù Small sample sizes cannot be considered representative of the target population ù Time and energy researchers expend observing behaviors can lead to fatigue, and observer fatigue potentially means less-than-accurate data Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Summary of Learning Objectives 1995 7888 4320 000001 00023 ù Identify the fundamental differences between qualitative and quantitative research methods and explain their appropriateness in creating useful managerial information. ù Describe and explain two popular qualitative techniques used in gathering raw primary data. ù Explain the basic pros and cons of using qualitative methods of developing data structures. ù Explain what focus groups are, the importance of a moderator, and how the resulting data are transformed into information. 8 -17 Copyright © 2003 by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.