1642 Blaise Pascal ENIAC MARK I 1822 Charles

计算机史上的古董 加法器 1642 Blaise Pascal ENIAC 计算机的发展 MARK I 1822 差分机 Charles Babbage 1833 分析机 6

l 法国数学家Pascal 1642 年发明齿轮式加法器 l l l l In 1642 Blaise Pascal, at age 19, invented the Pascaline as an aid for his father who was a tax collector. gear-driven one-function calculator (only add) exorbitant cost Not accurate (at that time it was not possible to fabricate gears with the required precision) same mechanism used in present car digital dashboards, the odometer portion of a car's speedometer to increment the next wheel after each full revolution of the prior wheel. Pascal was a child prodigy. At the age of 12, he was discovered doing his version of Euclid's thirty-second proposition on the kitchen floor. Pascal went on to invent probability theory, the hydraulic press, and the syringe. 计算机的发展 加法器 1642 Blaise Pascal A Pascaline opened up so you can observe te gears and cylinders which rotated to display the numerical result 7

l 1673年德国数学家莱布尼兹发明通用计算器 （十进制加减乘除运算） Leibniz's Stepped Reckoner (have you ever heard "calculating" referred to as "reckoning"? ) l the German Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz，co-inventor with Newton of calculus l This calculator （called the stepped reckoner）employed fluted drums having ten flutes arranged around their circumference in a stair-step fashion l Leibniz was the first to advocate use of the binary number system which is fundamental to the operation of modern computers. 计算机的发展 8

l In 1801 the Frenchman Joseph Marie Jacquard invented a power loom l that could base its weave (and hence the design on the fabric) upon a pattern automatically read from punched wooden cards, held together in a long row by rope. Jacquard's Loom showing the threads and the punched cards 计算机的发展 9

l 1822年英国数学家巴贝 奇发明机械式数字微分机 l 政府资助，建造困难，耗资巨额，十年时间 项目未完成 l steam driven calculating l the size of a room l to compute tables of numbers, such as logarithm tables l 1833年，分析机 l large as a house and powered by 6 steam engines l programmable，for general purpose l the punched card technology of Jacquard l Two main parts: store and mill—— （ memory unit and the central processing unit (CPU) ） l conditional statement 计算机的发展 1822 差分机 Charles Babbage 1833 分析机 10

l 1890年美国的海勒内茨发 明穿孔卡片系统，成立计 算制表公司，1924年更名 为国际商用机器公司IBM l“Hollerith desk”，解决了完成人口普查需 要长达 7年时间的困难 ladopted Jacquard's punched cards for the purpose of computation la card reader、a gear driven mechanism、large wall of dial indicators An operator working at a Hollerith Desk like the one below lread-only to read/write technology 迄今为止，之前的自动计算机器 的功能主要用于实现会计金融等 领域，虽有减法，但不需负数， 且乘法可通过累加实现 计算机的发展 11

About MARK 1 l 二战时期，美国海军，弹道表 的计算 l 求解由空气阻力，风力，重力， 初速度描述的方程 l 之前由人 计算人员完成 l Harvard and IBM in 1944，第 一台可编程数字式计算机，采 用机电结构 l weighed 5 tons, miles of wire, 8 feet tall and 51 feet long, and had a 50 ft rotating shaft running its length, turned by a 5 horsepower electric motor. l The Mark I ran non-stop for 15 years, sounding like a roomful of ladies knitting. 计算机的发展 The Harvard Mark I: an electro-mechanical computer 12

About MARK 1 l Grace Hopper：. the first computer "bug". the first high-level language, "Flow-matic". This language eventually became COBOL which was the language most affected by the infamous Y 2 K problem. the world's first compiler The first computer bug [photo © 2002 IEEE] 计算机的发展 13

现代计算机的其他all-electronic前身 l l l 1941，the first to employ binary arithmetic. for only one type of mathematical problem built between 1936 and 1938 the code-breaking Colossus of Great Britain built during World War II The Atanasoff-Berry Computer l l l Z 1, built between 1936 and 1938 general purpose computers in Nazi Germany the Z 3, built in 1941, the first operational, generalpurpose, programmable destroyed by an Allied bombing raid their architecture is identical to that still in use today: an arithmetic units, a memory , a control system, and input and output devices. 计算机的发展 The Zuse Z 1 in its residential setting 14

ENIAC——计算机时代的开端 l the 18, 000 vacuum： Ø Ø Ø Ø The idea that 18, 000 tubes could function together was considered so unlikely that the dominant vacuum tube supplier of the day, RCA, refused to join the project (but did supply tubes in the interest of "wartime cooperation"). could hire only the most junior members of the University of Pennsylvania staff because the more experienced faculty members knew that their proposed machine would never work. extremely careful circuit design to solve the tube reliability problem experiment where starved lab rats for a few days and then gave them samples of all the available types of cable to determine which they least liked to eat. With heavy duty air conditioning system ENIAC's first task was to compute whether or not it was possible to build a hydrogen bomb After chewing on half a million punch cards for six weeks, ENIAC did humanity no favor when it declared the hydrogen bomb feasible 计算机的发展 16

Reprogramming ENIAC involved a hike 计算机的发展 17

Typical wiring in an early mainframe computer CDC 7600 The DEC PDP-12 mini-computers of 1969 An integrated circuit ("silicon chip") 计算机的发展 19

The Altair 8800, the first PC l 1971年Intel公司的第一个微处理器芯片4004诞生，预示着计算机发展的一个 新阶段到来。 l The 4004 consisted of 2300 transistors and was clocked at 108 k. Hz (i. e. , 108, 000 times per second). Compare this to the 42 million transistors and the 2 GHz clock rate (i. e. , 2, 000, 000 times per second) used in a Pentium 4. One of Intel's 4004 chips still functions aboard the Pioneer 10 spacecraft, which is now the manmade object farthest from the earth. l Intel followed the 4004 with the 8008 and 8080. Intel priced the 8080 at $360 dollars as an insult to IBM's famous 360 mainframe which cost millions of dollars. The 8080 was employed in the MITS Altair computer It was personal all right: you had to build it yourself from a kit of parts that arrived in the mail. This kit didn't even include an enclosure 计算机的发展 23

晶 体 管 100 M 2000年的 微处理器 10 M 500 Pentium 1 M 25 80486 80386 80286 100 K 数 10 8088 10 K 1 每 秒 百 万 条 指 令 数 8080 4004 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 0. 1 2000 每 18个月芯片能力增长一倍 计算机的发展 25

参考资料 l http: //www. computersciencelab. com/ Computer. History/History. htm 6/6/2021 32

l人机交互方式的演变 Human-Computer Interaction（HCI ） 6/6/2021 33

Three Eras of User Interfaces l. Batch Computing(1945 -1968) l. Command-line (1969 -1983) l. Graphical (1984 and after). 人机交互 35

Command-line Era（1） l Timesharing computers（Unix） l the computer gave each user a tiny sliver of time in a roundrobin fashion. Perhaps 100 users would be simultaneously logged on, each typing on a teletype l Teletype最早从1902到 1969年, 已经 发展成熟, 被人们熟练使用. l Request-response模式，专用语法 约定下的文本命令 l 反应时间从之前的数天数小时降低到 数秒 l 允许用户根据当前的输出结果实时或 者近乎实时地改变请求目的 l 需要记忆大量的命令 ASR-33 Teletype The Teletype was the standard mechanism used to interact with a time-sharing computer 人机交互 40

Command-line Era（2） l In the mid-1970 s, (字符)视频显示终端出现，进一步缩短了反 应时间 The VT 100, introduced in 1978, was probably the single most popular and widely imitated VDT of all time. Most terminal emulators still default to VT 100 mode. (字符显示) 6/6/2021 41

from Command-line to Graphical l 最早的数字计算 机游戏 Spacewar! l. Developer(s) Steve Russell l Platform(s) just a character but a modified PDP-1（a hundrednotthousand dollarsterminal, ） l. Release date(s) 1962 oscilloscope(示波镜) that could be made to support vector graphics l. Genre(s) Space combat simulation l. Mode(s) Two players, simultaneously (only) playing another very early video game in 1968, on the console of a Univac 1108 mainframe that would cost nearly forty-five million dollars if you could buy it today in 2004 6/6/2021 42

from Command-line to Graphical l the first hypertext system—— NLS/Augment ， By Doug Engelbart (鼠标发明者) ——a multiple-window interface, hyperlinks, and on-screen video conferencing http: //sloan. stanford. edu/mousesite/1968 D emo. html l This demo was a sensation with consequences that would reverberate through computer science for a quarter century, up to and including the invention of the World Wide Web in 1991. 6/6/2021 43

现代感与生硬不成熟的混合体，现代元素： 图标，窗口，滚动条等 缺失的：下拉菜单（由苹果 1979提出），色 彩，按键的伪 3 d效果 整体效果就如现代界面的一个草图轮廓 总的来说，需要补充的元素都是为了增强视 the engineering tradition behind 觉上的冲击 Graphical Era l The first GUI today's GUIs was born at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center The Xerox Alto （1973） The input device on the left appears to be a touch tablet, a mouse alternative similar to the trackpads on modern portables. 人机交互 Alto running the Executive file browser (c. 1974). 46

Graphical Era l The Xerox Star (1981). The Star interface pioneered the desktop metaphor （ 桌面隐喻）that would be ubiquitous in later GUIs. 6/6/2021 47

Graphical l 失败的例子：Kickstart on the Amiga 1000 (1985). This is as good as the resolution of color monitors got in 1985 — no better than 640 x 256, not good enough to render fonts with the clarity of the black-andwhite displays on the Star or Macintosh. 6/6/2021 48

Graphical Era l 苹果对PARC的模式进行了改造和提高； 用时 5年，在业界标准看来，简直无法想 象；进行了深入调研和设计，考虑了人机 心理学；进行了以往任何人从来没有进行 苹果成功的开始：Early version of the 的尝试 Macintosh（Apple） Finder (1985). Compare this with the Amiga screenshot from the same year to see the dramatic difference between the quality of black and white vs. color displays in the 1980 s 6/6/2021 49

Graphical Era l 微软的早期尝试：Microsoft's early attempts ugly and unsuccessful, garishly colorized but weak efforts to clone the PARC GUI that didn't support even such basic features as overlapping windows; they largely failed to displace Microsoft's own DOS product. Microsoft's time was not yet Windows 1. 0 (1985). 6/6/2021 50

The theory behind Bob was to replace the specialized metaphors of the PARC-style desktop with a pseudo-spatial virtual reality in which programs and documents were represented by familiar, everyday objects. The crude graphics of the home screen are an instant clue to what went wrong; in practice, Bob was a cartoonish, cloying interface populated by “Personal Guides” whose saccharine pseudofriendliness failed to mask extreme mechanical stupidity. Windows 95 (1995). Microsoft Bob became the worst flop in Microsoft's history, a debacle so embarrassing that the company destroyed all copies of the software it could get its hands on and attempted to erase the entire episode from the public record. The only “Bob” novelty to survive its demise was none other than Clippy, the painfully distracting “assistant” in Microsoft Word. 6/6/2021 Windows Bob Home Screen (1995). 53

现在…未来… l Beyond the WIMP? VR (virtual reality) interfaces http: //humane. sourceforge. net/the/ The Humane Environment The Lifestreams project at Yale University 自然，可伸缩，无意识，虚拟，3 D 6/6/2021 59

著名研究机构、公司 l MIT's Lincoln Labs l Stanford Research Institute l CERN: European Organization for Nuclear Research l Bell Labs l Apple l Sun l ARC-style desktop Palo Alto Research Center (施乐公司)帕洛阿尔托研究中心 6/6/2021 60

参考资料 l http: //www. catb. org/~esr/writings/taouu /html/ch 02 s 01. html 6/6/2021 61