1 Three Scientific Traditions 1 Behaviorist 2 Cognitive

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Three Scientific Traditions 1 Behaviorist 2 Cognitive –Computational 3 Dialogical 2

1 Ø The most visible application of behaviorism is in Contrastive Analysis & Audio-lingual method. Ø The focus was on the learner’s external environment that served as a stimulus for the processes of learning. S R (Habit) Ø Learning was considered as a habit formation, the process of making a link between stimuli and responses. This link had to be reinforced, observed, corrected, and practiced. Ø The learner’s mental processes, cognition developments were disregarded because they were not accessible to external examination. Ø Behaviorist is embedded in Positivist (Empiricist), and also in Quantitative methods, Subjects were treated like objects in a laboratory experiment in which the researcher elicited and interpreted subjects’ behaviors according to his hypotheses. This was based on statistical logic. Subjects’ thoughts and feelings were totally ignored. Ø The individuality of subject was disregarded. 3

2 Cognitive-Computational Ø The cognitive tradition, stresses the importance of mental processes, internal processes rather than external processes. Ø The external environment is viewed as less important because human beings are born with the innate predisposition. Ø Human beings are born with the computer that is responsible for cognitive development. The external world serves as a trigger mechanism , as a switch for the computer program to be activated. Ø They search for generalizability, the universality of rule-governed mental behaviors, the existence of one reality for all human beings. 5

A) The older- Hypothetico-Deductive ØIn the cognitive tradition, the problem of inaccessibility of mental processes was overcome by the application of the hypothetico-deductive method, use logical and mathematical reasoning. ØOne of the applications in SLA is in Chomsky’s theory of universal grammar. B) The new- Information processing-Computational ØFocus on the mechanism responsible for the processing of information. ØThe main assumption: mental processes are rule-governed. So, in human mind, rules are assimilated, processed, and stored. ØAn example of its application in SLA is Vanpatten’s input processing model. 6

3 The Dialogical Tradition Ø Its origin is in Vygotsky’s Sociocultural and Bakhtin’s Dialogized Heteroglossia theory. Ø This approach takes into consideration the dynamic role of social contexts, individuality, and the sociocultural backgrounds of the individual involved in cognitive growth. Ø Vygotsky points out, the property of human mental functioning can be discovered by the investigation of the individual’s environment and by the observation of mental and linguistic activities. Ø Bakhtin assumes the existence of multiple realties that are interpreted differently by different individuals that is because human beings are exposed to different sociocultural settings. 7

1 Behaviorist 2 Cognitivecomputational 3 Dialogical External environment Internal, mental process No individuality Universality, No individuality No communicative social interaction 7 External + internal human realities. Sociocultural + Individuality

2 Behaviorism and Second Language Learning Contrastive Analysis (CA) Lado (1957) all L 2 errors can be predicated by identifying the differences between the learners’ native language and target language. Q: Strong version? Weak version? Criticism v. Theoretically, it lacks of universal grammatical systems, so it would not possible to compare languages objectively. v. Practically , not all of the predicted areas of difficulty actually could be observed in the learner’s performance. 8

Error Analysis (EA) ØIn EA, errors were not regarded as ‘‘sins’’ that needed to be avoided at all cost; The learner’s errors reveal some valuable insights as to the nature of an innate universal mechanism. ØSource of errors = learner’s native language + target language Q: What kinds of information errors can convey to teachers, researchers or learners? Q: What is the difference between EA and weak version of CA? * In weak version of the CA * In Error Analysis TL → NL TL → TL 9

The Morpheme Order Studies ØMost of the errors produced by L 2 children of different linguistic backgrounds were not due to L 1 interference #C. A ØOnly 3 to 5 percent of the learner’s errors could be attributed to native language transfer. So, an innate mechanism exists, the grammatical features of the second language will be acquired in a predictable order. ØSecond language learning is similar to first language learning and is guided by universal, innate mechanisms. L 1=L 2 ØMorpheme studies showed consistent order of emergence of 14 grammatical morphemes in English. So, all L 2 learners must go in this order to learn a second language. ØProblem: findings are specific to English. 10

3 The Cognitive Tradition Chomsky’s Theory of Universal Grammar ØThe language faculty (UG): a set of abstract rules, universal principles + language-specific parameters. The poverty of the stimulus argument: the existence of an innate autonomous and domain-specific mental mechanism that aids the child in first language acquisition. Environment Input LAD Universal Grammar Grammatical Competence Chomsky’s Model of First Language Acquisition 11

Q: Do L 2 learners access to UG? - No access - Direct Access - Partial access Q: What are the difference between childhood first language acquisition and adult second language acquisition? L 1 L 2 mastery No mastery UG available ………………. . ? …………………. ? fossilization …………………. ? Negative evidence …………………. ? The effect of personality, motivation, attitude, …. . 12

4 Information Processing Models These models are cognitive in nature. Ø Bill Van. Patten’s input processing model ØSusan Gass and Larry Selinker’s model of second language acquisition Two theories influenced these models: ØKrashen’s Input Hypothesis ØMichael Long’s Interaction Hypothesis They are both concerned with the role of input and grammar instruction in second language acquisition. 13

Krashen’s Input Hypothesis 1. Acquisition-Learning 2. Natural Order 3. Monitor 4. Input 5. Affective Filter Q: How can they be connected to the Information Processing Models? Q: How can Krashen’s Hypothes is be related to the Chomsky’s view about Language learning? (Refer to Figure 4. 1 Page 49) Q: Who is really responsible for the learning in Krashen’s view? Can you clarify? Krashen’s Input Hypothesis: INPUT LAD OUTPUT Q: What are some of the Shortcomings of Krashen’s Model? Discuss. Q: Does Environment play a role in Learner’s affective state or the learner himself / herself is responsible? 14

Swain’s Comprehensible Output Theory In her opinion, the production of comprehensible output forces the learner to notice a gap between “What they want to say and what they can say”. This output plays an important role in changing the quality of the learner’s interlanguage. She identifies three functions of comprehensible output: 1. The noticing / triggering function, or consciousness-raising role 2. The hypothesis-testing function 3. The metalinguistc function or “reflective role” Q: What are the effects of the noticed gap? Q: What is negative feedback? 15

Michael Long’s Interaction Hypothesis What does the name Interaction suggest? He agrees with Hatch that “conversational interaction and, in particular, conversational modifications can provide context not only for the practice of grammatical rules but also for the acquisitions of these rules. What is Long’s Interaction Hypothesis? It is proposed that environmental contributions to acquisition are mediated by selective attention and the learners developing L 2 processing capacity, and that these resources are brought together most usefully, although not exclusively, during “negotiation for meaning”. Negative feedback obtained during negotiation work or elsewhere may be facilitative of L 2 development. 16

According to Long’s definition, environmental contributions are mediated by selective attention and the learner’s developing L 2 processing capacity. Q: Can you find a logical problem with this view? Discuss. (Please refer to page 54 figure 4. 3) He opposes Krashen’s idea about “focusing of forms” and proposes “focusing on form” instead. What are the differences? Focus on forms refers to the presentation of grammatical items “as models to learners” in linear, additive fashion. But Focusing on form refers to how attentional resources are allocated. It draws the learner’s attention to both form and meaning. But here is question “What kinds of meanings”? Semantic or Pragmatic? Discuss. If it means both could they be justified on this theoretical ground? 17

What is the role of feedback “positive” and “negative”? One evidence of the presence of implicit negative feedback is the present of “recast”? What do we mean by Recast? Recasts allows the learner to compare his or her ungrammatical utterances with the grammatical utterances offered by others. The learner can notice the gap between input and his or her interlanguage. So, there are some metaphors used in these hypotheses that are related to computer science. Such as: limited capacity processors, on-line comprehension, input, linguistic data, and output, They try to view the learner as a machine, a computer, they are the characteristics of the “information-processing paradigm. The first model is: 18

Van. Patten’s Input Processing Model It is based on 3 principles: 1. Learners process input for meaning before they process it form. 2. For learners to process form that is not meaningful, they must be able to process informational or communicative content at no cost to attention. 3. Learners possess a default strategy that assigns the role of agent to the first noun (phrase) they encounter in a sentence. We call this “first noun strategy. ” Q; Do you see a competition between the elements in his first principle? Discuss. Q; Do you see any roles for attention? Attention is effortful, and cognitive psychologists generally agree that attention involves a limited capacity to deal with stimuli. In other words not everything in the input can be detected. 19

Q: Which one wins the competition? ! Look at this example: * I work yesterday. Discuss. Some forms have more grammatical value. Compare –ing and –ed. Principle no. 3 is based on a competition model? Can you elaborate on it? Please refer to page 69 fig. 4. 5 Van. Patten’s input processing model consists of three sets of processes that convert input into output 1. Input processing 2. Accommodation and restructuring 3. Access Q : What can be the role of Chomsky’s UG in this model? Q: What are some of the shortcomings of this model? Discuss. 20

Q: What are some of the shortcomings of this model? Discuss. 1. The relation between output and intake is not explored in Van. Patten’s model. 2. Does this model advocates the separation of learning and acquisition, as proposed by Krashen? 3. He places the UG in the developing system in connection with accommodation processes. This indicates that the UG operates on intake rather than input while Chomsky’s UG operates on input. For L 2 grammar teaching he proposes some activities as “structured input activities”. What are they? 21

Structured input activities help the learner to detect a connection between form and meaning in the provided input. Their guidelines are as follows: Teach only one thing at a time. Keep meaning in focus. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Teach only one thing at a time. Keep meaning in focus. Learners must do something with the input. Use both oral and written input. Move from sentence to connected discourse. Keep the psycholinguistic processing strategies in mind. Structured input activities are of 2 types: 1. Referentially oriented activities (right or wrong) 2. Affectively oriented activities (agreement / disagreement, true for me or not, opinions, belief, feelings, …) 22

Gas and Selinker’s Model They present a model of SLA that attempts to integrate all the different subareas of SLA. It is similar to the previous ones in that they all want to change input into output. Gass’s model identifies five major stages that are involved in conversion of input to output: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Apperceived input Comprehended input Intake Integration Output A. She tried to answer some questions such as: Why are some aspects of language noticed by a learner, whereas others are not? B. What are the mediating factors at this initial stage? 23

She identifies these factors as: 1. Frequency 2. Affect (social distance, status, motivation, and attitude) 3. Prior knowledge 4. Attention Now Can you see any difference between her “comprehended input” and Krashen’s “Comprehensive input” Q: Can you discuss some of the shortcomings of her model? (pages 81 -84) 24

5 Communicative Competence Versus Interactional Competence Although their names suggest a communicative view of language, communication or interaction is viewed as a cognitive issue. So, What does interaction refer to in these models? Let’s go back and start with Chomsky’s views: Chomsky divides linguistic theory into two parts: 1. Linguistic competence (tacit knowledge of grammar) 2. Linguistic performance (realization of this knowledge in actual performance) Because of the importance of Chomsky’s UG some researchers advocates its application to the field of SLA. 25

Hymes’s Communicative Competence Q: How does Hymes’s communicative competence differ from Chomsky’s definition of competence? According to Hymes the child acquires knowledge of sentence not only as grammatical, but also as appropriate (who, when, where, How) Please refer to table 5. 1 on page 88 Please refer to page 89 for a view of Hymes’s Communicative Competence Model 26

Canale and Swain expanded Hymes’s model into a model of communicative competence for SLA. They introduced a four-component model: 1. Grammatical competence (knowledge of lexical items and rules of morphology, syntax, …) 2. Sociolinguistic competence ( knowledge of the rules of language use) 3. Strategic competence (verbal and non-verbal communication strategies) 4. Discourse competence (knowledge of how to achieve cohesion and coherence in a text) They tried to exclude the ability for use from their model, but according to Johnson (2001) two of their competencies, strategic and discourse, make implicit reference to it. Please refer to page 91 for a model of their view. Q: What are some of the problems of their model? 27

Bachman’s Communicative Language Ability Model His model consists of three competencies: 1. Language competence 2. Strategic competence 3. Psychophysiological mechanisms In his model the shortcoming of Canal and Swain’s model regarding the lack of a “mechanism responsible for the interaction of their competencies is resolved. Please refer to page 93 for a model of his Language Competence Q: What are some of the problems of his model? 28

Interactional Competence is “a theory of the knowledge that participants bring to and realize in interaction and includes an account of how such knowledge is acquired” (Young 1999, There are some key terms that defines the function of this view: a. Locally bound interaction or “oral practice”, or “speech events”, or “face-to-face interaction b. Coconstruction: the joint creation of a form, interpretation, activity, ideology, skill, emotion, culturally meaningful reality. The responsibility for interaction is shared by all participants. According to Hall, interactional competence is acquired through three processes or stages : 1. Discovery 2. Observation-reflection 3. Construction Q: How are they related? 29

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