1 PSY 6450 Psychology of Work Unit 1

1 PSY 6450 Psychology of Work Unit 1 Schedule: Today and Monday: Lecture Wednesday, 9/10: Exam

2 PSY 6450 Unit 1 • Some facts and a little history of I/O • Aamodt • Certification and licensing of behavior analysts • Dickinson paper • Differences between I/O psychology and OBM • Bucklin et al. (2000) • Written essential material into SOs • History of OBM • Dickinson (2000) • 20 th anniversary issue of JOBM New name for our I/O programs: IOBM MA and Ph. D.

3 SO 1: I/O vs. Business Fields, #1 • The application of psychological principles distinguishes I/O from related business fields • HRM texts advocate using unstructured interviews for selection; I/O has shown these are much less effective than other methods • Business advocates the use of Myers-Briggs to select and coach employees; I/O does not • Business advocates the use of “stretch” goals; I/O does not • Business advocates EOM programs; I/O does not (2 differences and explain each, giving examples; little hard to abstract out)

4 Daniels’ Oops: 13 management practices that waste time and money 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Employee of the month programs and most other reward/recognition programs Stretch goals Performance appraisal Ranking employees Rewarding things a dead man can do Salary & hourly pay 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. (no accidents, no errors, be at your workstation) You did a good job, but… The sandwich method of providing feedback (good, bad, good) Overvaluing smart, talented people The budget process Promoting people no one likes Downsizing Mergers, acquisitions (Enron, JPMorgan, 5. 8 billion trading/investment)

5 SO 1: I/O vs. Business Fields, #2 • I/O focuses on factors that affect the people; business focuses on factors that affect running a business* • Business courses: accounting, finance, marketing, business law, corporate policy, • Psychology courses: training and development, selection and placement, systems analysis, experimental methodology (permitting evaluation of interventions) *However, there is clearly overlap: Psychology of work vs. organizational behavior and management; systems analysis vs. business process management and supply chain management, for example. (recommend that all of our students take accounting)

6 Four basic areas of I/O psychology* (NFE) • Personnel Selection and Placement • Main area of emphasis for I/O • Not emphasized in OBM • Training and Instructional Design • Largest area of employment for MAs • Performance Management • Focus of this course • Systems Analysis - Organizational Development *these differ from Aamdot’s list: his are more general (Note: not counseling or clinical. EAP programs - counseling/clinical/social work degrees; recent health and wellness programs - yes)

7 SO 3: The I and O in I/O Psychology • Industrial • Focuses on the individual worker/position • Determining the requirements of each job/position • Selecting individuals who have those requirements • Training individuals to improve their competency • Organizational • Any aspect of the organization and structure that affects performance and/or satisfaction • Reward/pay systems • Feedback systems • Organizational structure (systems analysis) (distinction that has little relevance today, overlap between the two, but remains in the name)

8 Some I/O history: First area of application • SO 4 A: The oldest area of application and the one that still dominates today is Personnel Selection & Placement. • Main difference between I/O programs and OBM programs. • SO 4 B: Personnel Selection got started by selection and placement of military personnel in WWI & WWII • Clinical tests, typically intelligence and personality tests, and used them to test recruits (emphasis influences other aspects of training - statistical methods used to determine reliability and validity of tests - job relatedness; SO 8 – Aamodt, at least 5 stats courses in PH. D. IO)

9 SO 5: Putting the “O” in I/O psychology • One of the greatest episodes in the formation of I/O according to many: Hawthorne Studies in the 1930 s • Heretofore restricted to personnel issues such as selection and training (the I in I/O) • Expanded to: • Human relations • Quality of work environment • Attitudes • Satisfaction and group morale

10 SO 6: Personnel Selection (NFE) • I/O expanded greatly when Congress passed Title VII Civil Rights Act, 1964 • Banned unfair discrimination against minorities and females • I/O has a “lock” on personnel selection as a profession Other EEO Laws: • Age Discrimination • Vietnam/Disabled Veterans • Americans with Disabilities Act (overlap between I/O and OBM and other areas: mgt – 0% MBA programs, human resources, Industrial engineer - selection remains I/O. don’t deal with laws and issues here, personnel selection)

11 SO 9: Where do I/O psychologists work? • 10 A: Ph. D. s (learn top three for exam) • Higher education 40% • Consulting firms 25% • Private Industry 24% • Public Government 8% • 10 B: MAs (learn top two for exam) • Private Industry 44% • Consulting firms 37% • Public Government 11% • Higher education <1% (note difference Ph. D universities vs. industry; difference MA, private, more likely to work in private business with MA; consulting firms, interesting data, first time HSS)

12 SO 10: $$ Salaries - SIOP Survey 2012 (NFE) Median Starting Median Overall Male Median Female Median $120, 000 $103, 000 Ph. D $78, 000 $118, 000 MA $64, 000 $82, 500 $ Ph. D median starting same for applied & profs $ Profs significantly lower than applied $ Female median is 15% lower than males but first significant decrease-and least since-1982! (High starting salary for MAs - $40 -$50 K; last pertains to Ph. D&MA combined; mean salaries 20% lower; about 50% of students are now female; 14% when I got my IO degree in 1977; WMU figures in Sos; expt inst. ranks lower; fulls paid 12% less than males; Differences are less than in the past; university has gender equity committees looking into this/reduce it. Dr. Baker & Fuqua)

13 Facts about I/O psychology • SO 11: Primary professional organization for I/O psychology Society for Industrial/Organizational Psychology Web site: www. siop. org Also, SIOP is Division 14 of APA (Behavior Analysis is Division 25)

14 Facts about I/O psychology • SO 12: Primary journal for I/O psychology (NFE) Journal of Applied Psychology Note list of 22 journals in Table 1. 5 JOBM is not included (little cross-fertilization between IO psychology and OBM: At this point in time most OBM practitioners/students don’t know much about IO and vice versa 2011 special issue of JOBM devoted to integration; well worth reading)

15 Facts about I/O psychology • SO 13: Percentage of Ph. D psychologists who are I/O psychologists 4% 50% of APA’s 96, 000 psychologists are clinical, counseling and school psychologists Thus, it’s not surprising that people don’t know about us

16 SO 14: Growth of IO (nfe) Year # of IO psychologists 1939 100 1960 760 1991 3, 000 2008 7, 500 Year MA programs Ph. D programs 1986 23 44 2008 75 65 (I graduated in 1977 with my MA degree in IO)

17 SO 15: Licensing of IO Psychologists (this slide NFE) • Very different than clinical psychology • Varies from state to state • Some require it, most don’t • Some states preclude it - i. e. , MI • Educational and experiential requirements focus on clinical/counseling courses and internships • Academics (who do not practice) do not have to be licensed (next few sos, licensing in IO psychology, and certification/licensing in BA)

18 SO 15: SIOP opposes licensing - why? • SIOP maintains that I/O psychologists • Should be able to be licensed • But should not be required to be licensed • Main reason why licensing is not needed • Licensing is designed to protect the public in health care areas (mental and behavioral health). I/O psychologists are not health care providers and do not deal with vulnerable populations. • Same argument OBM practitioners are making about license laws for behavior analysts • SIOP successfully blocked many states from passing license laws ~15 years ago (licensing originally to protect public - vulnerable populations, health care areas Next slide, certification/licensing of behavior analysts, )

19 Certification vs. Licensing, Behavior Analysts • Differences • Certification is voluntary, licensing is legally required • Certification is overseen by an international credentialing board, the BACB, and licensing is overseen by states • Because of that the requirements for certification are the same from state to state and, in fact, globally; while the requirements for licensing vary from state to state, just like the licensing of I/O psychologists (independent from ABAI; compliance overseen by licensing boards established by the state; Legal penalties for violating license laws , 19 states have license laws)

20 Requirements for Certification and Licensing are similar: Why? • Certification predated licensing • National certification began ~1998, licensing began ~2009/2010 • BACB anticipated licensing and developed and posted a “model” license law on its web site to assist states • States: why re-invent the wheel when a well-respected organization had already developed standards and an exam? • Certified behavior analysts were typically the ones who advocated for license laws and spearheaded their adoption (In almost all states, the requirements for licensing are the same or similar to requirements for certification; some states, identical; in a few you must be certified to be licensed; any event, similar. )

21 SOs 16 & 17: Why license laws? • To protect at risk-individuals seeking behavior analytic clinical services • To accompany autism insurance laws that have recently been passed, specifying and regulating the individuals who can receive insurance reimbursement • Some behavior analysts believe license laws should protect all consumers, not just at-risk individuals (also thus protecting the field in general) • Some believe that we will not achieve the same status as other professionals (doctors, licensed clinical psychologists) unless we are licensed (first two are the main ones; some states use certification as standard; Employees, athletes, college students, etc. ; because of these differing views, two broad category of laws)

22 SO 19: Two types of laws • Restrictive laws • Only behavior analysts who provide clinical services to individuals need to be licensed, for example • Those who work with children diagnosed with autism • Those who work with individuals with developmental and intellectual disabilities • Those who work with seniors with dementia • Broad title and practice laws • You cannot call yourself a behavior analyst (title) or practice behavior analysis (practice) unless you are licensed (Skip to 19, come back to 18. in general, two types of laws, although one state has a “title” law; first type relates to the first 2 reasons on the previous slide, the last type relates to all four reasons; )

23 States that have each type (according to Dr. D. ) • Restrictive laws: 14 states • Alabama, Alaska, Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Nevada, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, and Virginia • Michigan has a restrictive law pending (it is in the legislature) • Broad title and practice laws: 5 states • Arizona, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Missouri, Wisconsin • Ten laws were passed last year: all were restrictive • Due to revision of the BACB model license law in 2012, including wording for the potential exclusion of applied behavior analysts who provide non-clinical services, and explicitly OBM practitioners and applied animal trainers • Seems to be the trend (although again I could be wrong) (I could very well be wrong; it is hard to interpret the laws; talk more about this in the article)

24 SO 18: Reasons why most OBMers are not certified and oppose licensing • OBM does not deal with at-risk individuals (same reason SIOP opposes licensing for I/O psychologists) • No insurance reimbursement is at stake – OBM clients are private pay and will always be private pay, thus our clients do not require it • Except for basic behavioral principles, the current certification process, particularly the exam, is not relevant for those in OBM (next slide, the fourth reason)

25 SO 18: Reasons why most OBMers are not certified and oppose licensing: A fourth reason • *Licensing, given the current requirements, would detract from the training of our students • OBM students need different skills and training than those currently required for licensing (and certification) • Without increasing the number of credit hours in our graduate training program, we could not train our students as well (Note that I did not say are opposed to certification: that is voluntary. Also, I know I said 3 reasons in the Sos the fourth, which I consider to be the most important is actually an implication or result of the third)

26 SOME MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN I/O AND OBM Bucklin et al. , 2000 (only highlight some important differences - embedded those in sos)

27 Purpose To identify similarities and differences with respect to topics and research methods used in OBM and traditional I/O psychology

28 Method • JAP • Authors reviewed every article in JAP between 1987 & 1997 (N = 997) • Classifications were primarily derived from Nolan et al. (1999) who previously analyzed articles in JOBM for the same years (N=119) • JOBM • JAP classification results were compared to JOBM data collected by Nolan et al. (1999)

29 Qualification on the data • Van. Stelle et al. (2012) published an updated review of the publications in JOBM • Reviewed articles published between 1998 -2009 • I couldn’t use these updated data because there aren’t any comparisons with JAP • I compared the JOBM data from the two articles, however, and was struck by similarity of data (DVs, IVS, social validity; some of the differences simply reflect the interests of the academics)

30 SO 21: No unifying theory in I/O (NFE) • I/O Psychology • No unifying theory historically • No unifying theory today • At least 10 motivational theories: Aamodt • At least 8 leadership theories: Aamodt • Motivational theories and leadership theories (already 18 different theories) • Leads to research and articles about who is right

31 SO 21: Unifying theory of OBM (NFE) • OBM (emerged in the early 1960 s) • Unifying theory of behavior analysis • Emerged from other areas in behavior analysis - programmed instruction (Brethower) - clinical psychology (Daniels, Gilbert) - experimental (Anderson, Brown) - general applied (Hopkins) - education (Sulzer-Azaroff) • Behavior analysis is unique - apply the same principles across all specializations (not only for topics within OBM)

32 SO 22: Topics in JAP & JOBM 22 A: Rank order top 3 in JAP JOBM 1. Selection & 1. Productivity & Quality Placement 2. Statistical Analysis Procedures 3. Performance Appraisal 2. Customer Satisfaction 3. Training and Development

33 SO 22 B: Of top 12 topics, commonalities Only three!! 1. Productivity & Quality 2. Training & Development 3. Health & Safety

34 Differences (NFE) • Ranking : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. JAP Selection/Placement Statistical Analysis Performance Appraisal Attitudes, Cognition Legal Issues Turnover, Absenteeism, Attendance 7. T & D 8. Productivity & Quality 9. Gender & Minority 10. Group Performance 11. Leadership/Decision Making 12. Safety, Health JOBM 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Productivity & Quality Customer Satisfaction T&D Safety, Health Accuracy Rate of Performance Sales Labor Cost Timeliness Novelty Management/Systems Analysis (most OBM articles dealth with productivity & quality issues, 5 -10 measures; more breadth I/O)

35 SO 23: Primary research strategy • Percentage of research articles that were experimental vs correlational (NFE) JOBM JAP Experimental 95% 40% Correlational 5% 60% • Primary research strategy • JOBM: Experimental • JAP: Correlational • What is the problem with correlational research? (in this and the next few Sos, I have rounded the %s to make it easier for you to learn)

36 SO 24: Field vs. Laboratory Exp. (NFE) Experimental Setting JOBM N = 60 JAP N = 308 Field 80% 20% Laboratory 20% 80% (NFE, but using this to make a point later, % reversed)

37 SO 25: Applied vs. Theoretical Research Studies Research Question JOBM N = 60 JAP N = 308 Theoretical 55% 95% Applied 45% 5% (more applied studies in the Van. Stelle 2012 review– 73%)

38 OBM vs. I/O (NFE) • The percentage of experimental studies conducted in the field was much higher in JOBM = 80% JAP = 20% • The percentage of applied vs. theoretical experimental studies was much higher in JOBM = 45% JAP = 5% • Conclusion OBM is more applied and the gap between research and practice appears to be larger in I/O than in OBM

39 SO 28: Independent Variables, how many were the same? JAP (N=308) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. JOBM (N=60) Antecedents/ 71% Information Training 15% Goals 10% Feedback 8% Monetary consequences 5% Non-monetary consequences 1% 1. Praise 7. . 3% 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 8. 9. Feedback Training Monetary consequences Antecedents/ Information Non-monetary consequences Goals Praise Punishment System design 75% 63% 32% 28% 25% 18% 5% 2% (Moving to SO 28: top 7 were the same, but proportion very different. JAP antecedents/JOBM consq, pack; Combined goals, feedback, consq. ; not surprising I am covering the topics I am in this class; Not changed much in 2012 review; package interventions more effective, in sos articles)

40 SO 28: Independent variables in studies • In I/O The main IV is antecedent/instructional control • Consequences are manipulated only rarely • • 70% manipulated antecedents; only 15% examined feedback or consequences • In OBM • Antecedents are rarely used alone • Consequences are manipulated much more • Feedback, 75% and consequences, 65% • Package interventions are used much more frequently • This is an artifact of the types of studies conducted; a considerable more percentage of OBM studies are applied vs. lab studies in contrast to I/O studies

41 Dependent Variables (NFE) • JAP • Self-report measures were used in 50% of experimental studies and 76% of correlational studies; • Behaviors in only 5% of studies • JOBM • Products of behaviors (accomplishments) were used in 78% of experimental studies • Behaviors in 43%

42 HISTORY OF OBM IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR 1950 - 1980 Dickinson, 2000

43 SO 31: When did OBM become visible? OBM started in the mid to late 1960 s

44 Table 1: Lifetime Achievement or Outstanding Contributions Awards (NFE) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Aubrey Daniels Thomas Gilbert Edward Feeney Beth Sulzer-Azaroff Thomas Mawhinney Dale Brethower William Redmon Alyce Dickinson Paul Brown Geary Rummler Chevron Chemical Corp (CLG) 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. (red: wmu connection, 10 of 23) Terry Mc. Sween Jon Bailey Maria Malott D. Chris Anderson William Abernathy Scott Geller John Austin Dwight Harshbarger Timothy Ludwig Terry Mc. Sween Judy Agnew Alyce Dickinson

45 OBM Precursors: 1950 s • SO 32: Who is responsible for programmed instruction? • Skinner • The science of learning and the art of teaching, 1954 • Teaching machines, 1958 • Holland & Skinner, Analysis of Behavior, 1961 • SO 33: First organized application of behavioral principles in business & industry • Programmed instruction (more on this later)

46 SO 34: OBM precursors, cont. (NFE) • Applications in other areas in behavior analysis began before OBM • Authors who published the first applied article in the field of behavior analysis • Ayllon & Michael: The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer, JEAB, 1959 • Who is the father of behavior modification and thus the grandfather of OBM? (according to Hopkins) • Jack Michael

47 The 1960 s: OBM gets started • Articles & books - fewer than 10 during the whole decade (NFE) • SO 35: First professional organization • National Society for Programmed Instruction: 1962, 12 years before ABAI • Now, International Society for Performance Improvement (applied vs academic) • Dale Brethower, Geary Rummler, Don Tosti, Susan Meyer Markle, Tom Gilbert • www. ispi. org (great resource for jobs)

48 University of Michigan workshops (NFE) • U of M workshops, 1961 -1969 • Center of Programmed Instruction • Brethower, Rummler, Gilbert, (& Malott) hooked up (B&R actually published first applied OBM article in Personnel in 1966) • There, programmed instruction led to performance- based instruction, which led to behavioral systems analysis • Brethower, Center for PI • Rummler, College of Business • Just for fun, go to the following web page and see an article from 1975 with Dr. Malott leading one of these workshops: www. aliciapatterson. org/APF 001975/Mc. Crea 06/Mc. Crea 06. html

49 SO 36: Brethower’s accomplishments • Three main accomplishments • Programmed instruction • Performance-based instruction • Behavioral systems analysis • Other interesting things to know • Published first behavioral systems book in 1972. The book was published by a publishing firm called “Behaviordelia” - run by Dr. Dick Malott. • Was my advisor here at WMU!

50 SO 37: How did PI lead to PBI then BSA? • Programmed Instruction • Very skilled at getting people to learn what they taught, but often the training did not transfer to the job • Performance-based instruction • Did training actually transfer to job? • Led to performance management - it wasn’t the training that was the problem, but the management system • Behavioral Systems Analysis (the BIG picture) • PBI and PM got transfer to the job, but… • Was the performance contributing to the mission/goals of the organization?

51 PM vs BSA conflict (NFE) • Sales vs manufacturing: classic problem Implement a sales incentive program so your sales representatives sell a lot of cars, but manufacturing can’t keep up. That creates a long delay for the consumer who then buys a car from someone else. Your PM program for sales has worked, but to the detriment of the entire organization.

52 SO 38: Brethower, Rummler, & Gilbert • Brethower and Rummler developed behavior systems analysis together when they were graduate students at UM in the 60 s • Gilbert was invited to teach some of the workshops at UM • Rummler and Gilbert started a consulting firm together (Praxis in NYC) that was one of the first behavioral consulting firms in the country • 1967 -G, 1969 -R, dissolved 1979 and sold to Kepner- Tregoe (Work of these individuals is very similar – not a coincidence)

53 SO 39: Gilbert’s book and date • Human Competence, 1978 • Introduced the concept of “worthy performance” and focusing on accomplishments vs. behavior - very controversial in the field. • Behavior Engineering Model was one of the first comprehensive performance diagnostic tools for the field. • Austin’s PDC and Binder’s six boxes based on this model: We will look at both in the next unit • PIP: potential for improving performance • Exemplar performance minus average performance = PIP. • Many consultants use some variant of this today. (define accomplishments; 1995 unfinished autobiography, Human Incompetence )

54 Tom Gilbert Og Lindsley Rich O’Brien Tom Gilbert

55 SO 40: Aubrey Daniels • Formed Behavior Systems, Inc. , 1971 • With Larry Miller & Fran Tarkenton • First editor of JOBM, 1977 • Practitioner journal, BSI • Published one of the first books in OBM (written for supervisors) • Performance Management, now in its 5 th edition • New edition: Daniels & Bailey Aubrey has retired from ADI, Darnell Lattal is Chair, Board of Directors, Thomas Spencer, A WVU grad, Iwas appointed president and CEO, Jan. 14. ; Aubrey Daniels Institute: Aubrey, President and Andy Lattal, Executive Director & Museum Curator (online museum) (Minnesota Vikings, “got divorced, ” ADI founded in 1978)

56 Aubrey Daniels

57 SO 41: Where did the name of our field come from? • JOBM, 1977 • Aubrey Daniels • Problem with name • Not distinctive within business - OB vs. OBM • Business people don’t understand it • Their kids behave (misbehave); their workers perform • Performance Management - still a problem

58 SO 42 A: First graduate program to offer OBM and systems analysis? • Western Michigan University!!! • Early 1970 s, Applied Behavior Analysis program

59 SO 42 B: First faculty member at WMU? • Dr. Richard Malott was responsible for the systems analysis training here at WMU • Dr. Malott graduated the first students trained specifically in systems • 1978, Brethower joined faculty to behavioralize MA program in I/O, due to Dr. Malott • 1984 Dickinson joined WMU faculty • My generation, first students trained in OBM

60 SO 43 • How do early events in traditional I/O, business and management fields relate to the development of OBM? • They were chronological precursors but not causal precursors, unlike many have maintained when writing about the history of OBM • Field of OBM emanated from the field of behavior analysis

61 SO 43, cont. • Why does Dickinson maintain OBM came from behavior analysis and was not much influenced by I/O, business, or management fields? • The individuals who most influenced and pioneered the field came from other areas within behavior analysis, not from these traditional fields • Aubrey Daniels - clinical • Dale Brethower - school psychology • Beth Sulzer-Azaroff - education • Bill Hopkins - general behavior analysis • Tom Gilbert - clinical • Paul Brown – experimental • Chris Anderson – experimental • Chuck Crowell - experimental

62 THAT’S ALL FOLKS! • Questions? • E 1: Wed. , 9/10