1 Promoting multilingualism The development of a Bilingual

1 Promoting multilingualism: The development of a Bilingual (Bemba/English) Teaching Resource for English literature classrooms in Zambia A Paper presented at the CLASA Rhodes University Convention Centre Grahamstown (South Africa) 26 June 2017 - 29 June 2016. Dr. Joseph Mwelwa, & Professor Brenda Spencer - Joint Minds Consult /University of South Africa-

Background • Paper presents the findings of doctoral research by Dr. Joseph Mwelwa entitled: The Didactics of An English-Bemba Anthology of Oral Traditional Narratives In the Zambian Grade Ten Literature Class. • The study was completed in 2016 through The University of South Africa. • The problem the research addresses is that, despite Zambia’s multilingual population and the known benefits of multilingual education, • Teaching in Zambia remains guided by a monolingual fallacy with English as the language of instruction. • However, the linguistic reality on the ground points to multilingualism and multiculturalism at home and in the school play grounds generally. 2

The linguistic map of Zambia shows it as a Multilingual country . 3

Status of languages in Zambia q However, despite the acknowledgement of 72 languages, (Ohannessian and Kashoki (1978), Census (1990; 2000; 2010)). q. There has been an emphasis towards the promotion of Zambia’s seven national languages, Bemba, Nyanja, Tonga, Lozi, Lunda, Luvale, and Kaonde when Zambia resumed multiparty democracy status in 1991 (Marten & Kula, 2007). q. The study was conducted in one of the seven languages – Bemba - one of the most widely spoken languages and a language of communication by many (Census, 2000, 2010). 4

Context of the Study q The study was conducted 5 in Zambia -Ndola, Copper belt Province – a melting pot of all tribes and languages q Grade Ten literature in English and literature students were the target of the study q Critical reading, analytical thinking, discussions and creative expressions of thoughts required q Entry point for students’ study of a three-year literature in English syllabus q Introduces students to oral and written literature q Crucial for guiding teachers on how to prepare Grade Ten students for more advanced study of Grade 11 and 12 literature q However, teachers lack the materials and practical methodology on how to teach Grade Ten q Teachers tend to rush students onto prescribed literature texts before students’ masterly of fundamental concepts for understanding literature in English (Shakafusha, 2008) q. Superficial discussions on subject content and inadequate responses to written tasks generally characterise literature in English scripts at Grade 12 (Examination Council of Zambia Reports 2009; 2010; 2011) q Paucity of research on bilingual research methodology and materials development.

Context of the Study q Grade 10 learners come from diverse linguistic backgrounds q However, studies show that the Bemba language is dominant and has become a mother tongue for many in this context (Kashoki, 1990; CSO; 2000; 2010) q Learners constantly shift between a home language promoted by the home environment and the school language promoted by the school environment/language policy. q However, the home language is worthless in the classroom q. Core argument in the study is that the existing Zambian Lo. I policy does not cater for the multilingual/ multicultural learners and teachers in literature in English language pedagogy. q. The Monolingual approach that characterise literature pedagogy ought to be challenged because it brackets out learners’ Mother Tongue (s) q And yet Mother Tongue (MT) is a key resource in concept formation, development and understanding q. Inherent in MT are cultural and linguistic familiarity – crucial to making sense of the world of literature and understanding generally 6

An Overview of Literature q In multilingual contexts, languages are key resources that should be at the disposal of both teacher and learner q Languages are always in contact with and mutually influence each other (Canagarajah, 2013: 6) q Languages cannot be suppressed by policies or physical barriers q 7 Languages are fluid and mobile resources (Blommaert, 2010: 49) q Learners must therefore be encouraged to utilize these resources in a literature context q Monolingual approaches ensures that teachers miss opportunities to systematically develop students’ understanding of concepts q Teachers also fail to appreciate cultural and linguistic resources within the students’ learning environment.

Literature review • In Zambia, studies at primary school level show pupils struggle to read and comprehend subject matter in the LOI (Williams, 1992; 1993 SACMEQ, 1995; MOE, 1996; Linehan 2004); Matafwali (2012). • Nkamba and Kanyika’s 1998 study established that • “between 70. 8 percent and 77. 6 percent of Grade 6 pupils have not reached the minimum levels; … 96. 7 percent and 98. 7 percent of Grade 6 pupils have not reached the desirable levels” (1998: 64). • Given this background, Grade Ten students would be presumed to have weak academic linguistic proficiency in English (Mwelwa and Spencer, 2013). • English as Lo. I presents problems for students in second language contexts (Skutnabb-Kangas, 1996) • The language is itself a problem even when learning about it (Qorro, 2008) and (Kamwangamalu, 2013). 8

Literature review • Bilingual use of learning/teaching materials improved comprehension of concepts and generated enthusiasm in learning (Collinson 1974; ) Prophet and Dow 1994; Setati et al. 2002; Wildsmith-Cromarty and Gordon 2009). • Student creativity and clarity in writing (Qorro 1999), • Comprehension of questions in L 1 better than in L 2, • Written responses were intelligible and clearer in Swhahili. (Mlama and Materru, 1977) • The Language of instruction in Tanzania and South Africa (LOITASA) project demonstrated that • Stds expressed themselves well when allowed to use their own language. • Similar abilities were noted in stds in Isi Xhosa (South Africa) • Written responses were incoherent and unintelligible in L 2 (Brock-Utne , 2007) • Reading linguistically and culturally familiar text improved comprehension and understanding of text (Alptekin, 1993; Erten and Razi, 2009) 9

Literature review – an Overview • We have independent evidence that the principles underlying bilingual education are correct: There is strong evidence that background knowledge makes input more comprehensible. . . And that literacy transfers across languages (Krashen, 1995: 95). • Trans-languaging - using one language to reinforce the other in order to increase understanding and in order to argument the ability in both languages – is a common feature among bilinguals/multilinguals ( Williams, 1996; Garcia, 2011, Canagarajah, 2013) • Bilingual presentation of text would aid and increase the ability of bilingual/multilingual students to transfer literacy, exploit cultural/linguistic familiarity and increase comprehension of concepts. 10

11 The intervention An English- Bemba Bilingual Resource (BR) comprising of students’ and teachers’ materials was developed. The BR was derived from Bemba narratives and presented side by side to facilitate the teaching/learning of Grade Ten literature in English language in the Zambian literature classroom. The aim was to promote participation and learning of literature concepts through bilingualism which reaffirmed students’ cultural and linguistic identity and thus enabling them to tap into both their linguistic resources of English and Bemba in the same literature classroom.

Methodology 12 • Qualitative approach: T he creation of a Bemba/English Bilingual Resource (BR) involved multiple techniques § a) Recording § Archival retrieval –re-recording of narratives from the ZNBC archives- Lusaka § 2) Field-recording of stories from story tellers – Samfya § This process established the Bemba verbal text § [b) Transcription: By listening to the audio recordings, verbal text was created § This process ensured the existence of a written Bemba text § c) Translation: Narrative data from a national language (Bemba) was translated into an official language (English)- thus a bilingual text was created § This process generated an enormous amount of textual data [70 bilingual stories] § Thus a sample of Ten narrative data set was drawn to showcase materials design and development § The Bilingual Resource was trialled in Schools A + B § D) Focus Group Discussions (FGD): To assess the efficacy of the BR, students and teachers were then subjected to FGDs guided by a schedule of questions. The data were analysed using qualitative techniques

Methodology – FGD Schedule of Questions were based on knowledge of learners’ Bemba stories, How much knowledge of Bemba culture, how well they spoke and understood Bemba. Degree of use of Bemba in and outside classroom. How use of Bemba affected their comprehension. If they were comfortable with bilingual materials, if they would have preferred an English only text, degree to which Bemba literature differs from English literature, emotive response to the tale, whether the teaching prepared them for grade 11 and 12 literature classes 13

Sample Research Data 14 Bemba – Nshi Nkole English - Father of Inkole Patile akantu, katile kashibuka, kabuka nga efyo. upon a time, It said let me wake up, and it woke up like that Mu calo mwa Kasempa mwa ikele umulumendo, ishina lyakwe ni shi Nkole. Uyu shi Nkole ali ni fundi wa nama, icakutila umukashi wakwe na Kasonde, taishibe na fisashi iyoo. Abantu mu mushi, ba mutemenwe nganshi. Nga filya fine Icibemba citila, ‘Ukoba pali lunshi, cilonda’. A certain young man lived in Kasempa’s Kingdom. His name was shi Nkole. (Father of Nkole). Shi Nkole was a renowned hunter of game animals. As such, his wife always cooked game meat for dinner. She never cooked ‘ifisashi’ (vegetables prepared in pounded groundnuts soup). People of Kasempa’s kingdom liked him very much because of his hunting skills. Indeed as the Bemba saying goes, ‘to attract a fly, there needs to be a sore’.

Findings - Students 15 • . . . I will choose a language that at least I can …be able to easily understand. Coz if I were to choose Bemba, if I… for example I don’t know how to read how am I to understand it. I will have difficulties with reading again and if I were to choose English I would read but how am I going to understand? (NAT, 4: 29). “I might not know some expressions in English but I may understand when [I am] reading [in] Bemba, … Yes… so I think it is better” (Eli, 08: 21). • “… most of us don’t really like … speak very good English … can’t read English that well but then when you put the Bemba version, some of them who know how to speak Bemba, understand better than the English version, so the Bemba version really helped some of us” (Reg, 14: 24). • … the stories [in the BR] … are very interesting and they are preparing us like to have interest in reading novels. Yeah coz for me, I am not interested in reading but from the day I started reading these stories I think I am more interested in reading (MWI: 30: 05). • “Most of the stories that were in the bilingual resource are based on what really happens here in Zambia so it was easy for us because we were able to relate, we were able to easily relate because it’s based on true life situations here in Zambia, especially in villages “ (MWEK: 21: 50). • Literature is not just “…all about reading books … it can also be fun” (FGD Ext 2). • The BR “… does [help in understanding] because there are some words I know in Bemba because I do know a bit of Bemba and in English. I think in the understanding, it does very much help” (KAY, 06: 19).

Findings - Teachers § “ we are using stories that they’re familiar with, we are starting with something that they know and then we go to something that they don’t know. So in that way, the foundation is actually strong, because we have not gone somewhere very far, but we are just using something within ourselves” (Mit, 18: 31). “I think I would say about 70 or 80% [of the lessons were] pupil centred which is good. Yes, it shouldn’t be that the teacher has to say every single word in the (literature) class. The pupils should be seen to understand the story, bring out themes, and work out the plot” (Nam: 21: 47). “… at first …, I didn’t even understand as a teacher, the meaning of Kalyamisha, … but when I asked the pupils to say how do you understand? . . . they were able to explain to me to say, teacher, Kalyamisha simply means the debt consumer… they just went on explaining, it was very exciting!” (NKA, 04: 33). “… I read the English part and then I went to the Bemba part, so I was able to…OK, so in English it is said like this … in Bemba it said like this … Yes … [it does help]” (NAM: 05: 57). “… maybe the way they have suggested to say they would rather have both English and Bemba for their easier understanding. I don’t think there is anything wrong …” (MIT: 09: 57). 16

17 Summary of Findings §Participants produced various emotional responses and perceptions. Claims based on their own § Students chose a language they could easily understand – dilemma evident § individual & collective experiences clamed – BR facilitated understanding [We need to collect more data to verify this claim] § Cultural and linguistic familiarity § Improved comprehensible input § Enhanced participation in a bilingual class § Students became facilitators of learning § Enhanced communication strategies § Fun and excitement in the class § Claim that the BR could prepared students for Grade 11 and 12 literature in English § Capacity building among teachers §Endorsement of students’ linguistic and cultural value in a literature class

Towards Linguistic Synergy in the bilingual literature classroom q Study sought to investigate didactics of an English -Bemba anthology of oral traditional narratives in the Grade Ten literature class q One of the key aims – to generate didactically sound student teacher interactions with the BR in such a way that the notion of two languages working together created a q sense of linguistic synergy This synergy needed to be explored and explicated using theoretical tenets that are discernible in a multi-cultural classroom: - §Awareness of one’s language and the other language §Sharing becomes an operational principle §Enrichment of participation §Promotion of understanding §This created opportunities §Grammatical and syntactic analysis §Thematic analysis - bilingual theme analysis §Cultural and social analysis §Enjoyment and fun 18

Linguistic Synergy theory Synergy has benefits q Build upon existing knowledge/skills/ q Enriched techniques for teachers/learners q Enhances comprehensible input q Quick translations of concepts q Enhanced access to meaning q Delivers cultural and linguistic familiarity 19

Conclusion The study has argued for the dual use of languages in a Grade Ten literature class § Languages should be seen as resources in mobility § In a learning environment, languages are potential learning resources § The language resources unlock cultural and linguistic familiarity § These linguistic assets connect the learners’ known world to the unknown world of the text § They create powerful bridges for comprehending concepts § In this study, the entry point for enabling bilingualism are narratives § These are linguistic artifacts that carry cultural and linguistic traits familiar to learners § Traits are imbedded in the bilingual resource that enables learners to trans-language freely as they generate meaning and make sense of learning. § The enabling nature of the bilingual materials facilitate the occurrence of linguistic synergy which promotes fun and participation in a multilingual literature class 20

21 Thank you!